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Eumenes

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Eumenes of Cardia
Gold stater (319-317 BC) of the Macedonian mint at Susa. Eumenes struck the coin to fund his war against Antigonus I Monophthalmus.[1] Athena depicted left, Nike depicted right.
Native name
Εὐμένης
Born361 BC[2]
Cardia (near the Gulf of Saros, Turkey)
Diedwinter of 316-315 BC (aged 45)[3]
Gabiene, Persia (modern-day Iran)
Cause of deathStrangulation (Execution)
AllegianceMacedonian Empire
Years of servicefl. 361–315 BC
RankPersonal secretary
General
Satrap of Cappadocia and Paphlagonia
Battles/warsWars of Alexander the Great
First Diadochi War
            Battle of the Hellespont
            Battle of Orkynia
Second Diadochi War
            Battle of Paraitakene
            Battle of Gabiene Executed
Spouse(s)Artonis, daughter of Achaemenid satrap Artabazus II

Eumenes (/jˈmɛnz/; Greek: Εὐμένης; fl. 361–315 BC) was a Greek general, satrap, and Diadoch. He participated in the Wars of Alexander the Great, serving as Alexander's personal secretary and later on as a battlefield commander. Eumenes depicted himself as a lifelong loyalist of Alexander's dynasty and championed the cause of the Macedonian Argead royal house.[4]

In the Wars of the Diadochi after Alexander's death, Eumenes initially supported the regent Perdiccas in the First Diadochi War, and later the Argead royalty in the Second Diadochi War. Despite less experience as a commander, Eumenes defeated Craterus, one of Alexander's most accomplished generals, at the Battle of the Hellespont in 321 BC. After Perdiccas' murder in 320 BC Eumenes became a public enemy of the new Post-Alexander regime under Antipater and Antigonus. In 319 BC he was defeated by Antigonus at the Battle of Orkynia and confined to Nora, but later broke out through trickery.

Eumenes allied with Polyperchon and Olympias, Alexander's mother. From 318 BC onward he led a hard-fought campaign against Antigonus, defeating him at the Battle of Paraitakene, then being indecisively defeated later at the Battle of Gabiene. Afterward, Eumenes was betrayed by his soldiers (the Silver Shields) and given over to Antigonus. Antigonus executed him in the winter of 316–315 BC.

The Greek biographer and essayist Plutarch chose Eumenes as the focus of one of his biographies in Parallel Lives, where he was paired with Quintus Sertorius, the rebel Roman general who led a revolt against Rome in the 70s BC.

Early career

[edit]
Map of the Thracian Chersonese. Cardia, Eumenes' birthplace, is visible in the top right of the image.

Eumenes was a native of Cardia in the Thracian Chersonese.[5] His father, a prominent citizen of Cardia, was named Hieronymus.[6] Hieronymus cultivated a friendship with Philip II of Macedon which eventually led Eumenes to be employed as a private royal secretary (grammateus) by Philip, probably in 342 BC.[7][8] He may have sought refuge in Macedonia because of Hecataeus of Cardia's enmity toward his family.[9]

Eumenes also impressed Alexander's mother, Olympias, who later called him "the most faithful of my friends".[10] Despite the position of secretary being looked down on by Macedonians, Eumenes held significant authority in the office.[11]

Eumenes served as hetairoi (companion and cavalry captain) and royal secretary under both Philip and Philip's successor, Alexander the Great.[12] After Philip's death (336 BC) Eumenes remained loyal to Alexander and Olympias and accompanied Alexander into Asia,[13] but for most of his reign served as royal secretary.[14] Eumenes did not get along with Hephaestion, Alexander's closest companion, repeatedly arguing with him over "trivial matters".[15][16]

After Alexander's victory at the Battle of Gaugamela in 331 BC, Eumenes began performing military and diplomatic missions, such as his pronouncement to Sangala in 326.[17] He may have played a larger part in Alexander's eastern campaign, especially in India, than the surviving accounts say.[18] Eumenes was promoted to leader of the companion cavalry (hipparch), formerly held by Perdiccas following Hephaestion's death in late 324 BC.[19][20] Eumenes also participated in the Marriages at Susa in 324 BC with the other hetairoi.[21]

After Alexander's death in 323 BC, Eumenes was left without much standing, since his position depended closely on the king. Alexander had left no apparent heir.[22] When Alexander's leading officers (somatophylakes and others) and a mass of infantry were debating whether one of the living Argeads should ascend or a regency should be installed for Alexander's unborn child (Alexander IV), Eumenes was present alongside the officers but did not speak.[23][24] When the officers fled Babylon in the ensuing riot of the infantry, Eumenes remained in the city to make Meleager (the leader of the disgruntled infantry) come to an agreement with the officers.[25] Eumenes used his Cardian heritage to argue he had no personal motivation in the "Macedonian" struggle.[26] The infantry were willing to listen to Eumenes because of his close association with Alexander.[27] The officers eventually subdued Meleager and regained control over Babylon by announcing a joint kingship between Philip III Arrhidaeus and, when he was born, Alexander IV. Perdiccas became regent, effective ruler of the vast Asian section of Alexander's Empire, and Eumenes served as his advisor.[28] Eumenes procured Alexander's "Last Plans" and gave them to Perdiccas, who read them out before the soldiers before rejecting them.[29]

Satrap of Cappadocia and Paphlagonia (323–319 BC)

[edit]
Map of Alexander's Empire, divided as per the Partition of Babylon in 323 BC according to the historian Diodorus Siculus. Eumenes of Cardia's satrapies are visible on the top left, below the Black Sea.

Alexander's Empire was split in the Partition of Babylon (323 BC), where Cappadocia and Paphlagonia were assigned to a reluctant Eumenes, but they were not yet subdued.[30] The Achaemenid satrap and king Ariarathes still held Cappadocia, and the Paphlagonian tribes had renounced allegiance to the Macedonian government.[31] Eumenes thus had to subdue these forces to attain his satrapy. Perdiccas used his authority as regent of the joint kings to order Leonnatus, satrap of Hellespontine Phrygia, and Antigonus, satrap of Phrygia, Pamphylia and Lycia, to aid Eumenes in securing his satrapy.[32] Eumenes left Babylon in the late summer of 323 BC.[33]

Eumenes was probably given 5000 talents of gold from Perdiccas for the reconquest of Cappadocia.[34] Leonnatus accompanied him, but Antigonus ignored Perdiccas' order.[35] Eumenes arrived in Cappadocia and began to hire mercenaries. Leonnatus, however, was requested by Hecataeus of Cardia to march west to relieve Antipater who was besieged at Lamia as part of the Lamian War.[36] Leonnatus agreed to go west, as he had received letters from Cleopatra (daughter of Olympias, sister of Alexander the Great) asking him to marry her and become king of Macedon.[37] Leonnatus attempted to induce Eumenes to reconcile with Hecataeus and accompany him to Macedon to share in his far-reaching designs.[38] Eumenes refused, fearing Antipater would murder him if he returned, and felt "[unwilling] to abandon his standing with Perdiccas for a mad and dangerous dash to Macedonia".[39] He told Leonnatus he would give his answer later, then fled back to Perdiccas early in 322 BC, telling the regent of Leonnatus' plans. For this, Perdiccas elevated Eumenes to the ruling council of the Empire.[40][41]

Eumenes joined Perdiccas, who installed him in Cappadocia by defeating and killing Ariarathes in the summer of 322.[42] Eumenes reorganized his satrapy and appointed his supporters to prominent positions.[43] The two generals traveled to Cilicia by autumn.[44] Eumenes then returned to Cappadocia to aid Neoptolemus (satrap of Armenia) in his efforts to subdue the Satrapy of Armenia.[45] Neoptolemus' soldiers, disgruntled with authority, refused to listen to Eumenes just as they had refused Neoptolemus.[46] Eumenes subdued them by raising 6300 cavalry from Cappadocia, and made his satrapy peaceful and loyal by giving the Cappadocians monetary concessions.[47] Eumenes may have campaigned in Armenia throughout 322 and 321 BC.[46]

The arrival of Cleopatra and war

[edit]

In the spring of 321 BC, Nicaea (daughter of Antipater) and Cleopatra both came to Perdiccas and offered themselves as his bride.[48] Eumenes may have played a role in Cleopatra's arrival; when she arrived, he championed her proposal over that of Nicaea.[49] Eumenes' advice carried weight as the common soldiers respected him after his pacifying of Armenia.[50]

Perdiccas married Nicaea, but when his control over Philip III was challenged by Eurydice, he sent Eumenes to Cleopatra to reopen negotiations for marriage.[51] Antigonus fled to Macedonia, and informed Antipater of Perdiccas' intentions to divorce his daughter Nicaea and marry Cleopatra.[52] Craterus and Antipater, having subdued most of Greece in the Lamian War, were infuriated by Antigonus' news. They suspended their plans for more campaigns in Greece and prepared to pass into Asia and depose Perdiccas.[53]

Asia Minor and the Hellespont

[edit]

Perdiccas and his government decided to attack Egypt, as Ptolemy had, through the help of a Perdiccan officer, obtained Alexander the Great's funeral carriage.[54] Eumenes, in turn, was given supreme command (as autokrator) in Asia Minor to beat back Antipater and Craterus who were mustering armies in Greece.[55][56]

Eumenes marched to the Hellespont and spoke to Cleopatra again at Sardis, who this time refused to marry Perdiccas, uncertain of who would win in the war to come.[57] Antigonus, who sailed over with a fleet and landed in western Asia Minor, succeeded in winning over many satraps and cities (Asander of Caria, Menander of Lydia, among others).[58] Eumenes narrowly escaped capture in Sardis thanks to Cleopatra's warning.[58][57] Eumenes then retreated inland as Cleitus the White defected, and Perdiccas, hearing of these disasters, ordered Neoptolemus and Alcetas to obey him.[59][58] Both of these Macedonian officers resented Eumenes, and refused to do so.[60]

Eumenes received messages from Craterus and Antipater once they had reached Asia Minor, promising to retain him in his satrapy if he joined them.[61] Craterus wanted to reconcile Eumenes with Antipater, while Eumenes wanted to reconcile Craterus with Perdiccas; negotiations eventually broke down, as Eumenes stayed loyal to Perdiccas, and Craterus to Antipater.[61][62] Eumenes then discovered Neoptolemus was planning to defect to Craterus and Antipater, and defeated him in battle in Phrygia, recruiting much of his army.[61][63] Neoptolemus fled to Craterus and Antipater with 300 horsemen, and convinced them to march: soon after, Craterus took the majority of the Macedonian army to confront Eumenes.[64]

The fight of Eumenes of Cardia against Neoptolemus, Battle of the Hellespont (321 BC), Wars of the Diadochi. 1878 engraving.

Despite possessing far lower quality infantry than Craterus, Eumenes accepted the offer of battle, believing in his superior cavalry, beginning the Battle of the Hellespont.[65] Eumenes concealed Craterus' name from his soldiers, knowing his popularity would sway their loyalty, instead claiming the unknown warlord "Pigres" had joined Neoptolemus and was marching against them.[66] Eumenes also proclaimed he had received a dream that his army would be victorious.[67] During the battle, Eumenes prevented any Macedonians from recognizing the popular Craterus through his troop placement and tactics, and as a result Craterus was killed, his flank overran by Eumenes' Cappadocian cavalry.[68][64] Eumenes rode over to his left flank and killed Neoptolemus in single combat, then induced the enemy infantry to surrender, winning a "stunning victory".[69][70][71][42] Unfortunately, news of Eumenes' victory, which might have restored Perdiccas' authority, reached Egypt only one day after Perdiccas was assassinated by his men in a mutiny (320 BC).[72]

After the death of Perdiccas

[edit]

After the murder of Perdiccas in Egypt by his own soldiers, the Macedonian generals condemned Eumenes to death at the Conference at Triparadisus, assigning Antipater and Antigonus as his executioners.

Eumenes first travelled to Mount Ida where there was a royal stable. Eumenes took a large number of horses to replenish his Cappadocian cavalry. He took the time to file an account with the overseers of the stables despite his outlaw status. Upon hearing this, Antipater was greatly amused, however, it is clear that Eumenes made this move to show that he was acting under the law and in the service of the Argead House.

Since he would be facing a force superior in infantry, Eumenes decided to travel to the plains of Sardis where his advantage in cavalry would be decisive. He had also hoped to win the support of Cleopatra of Macedon, who was present in the city at the time. Cleopatra and Eumenes had been friends since childhood, however, Cleopatra was not willing to back what seemed to be a losing cause and implored Eumenes to leave the area lest she incur the wrath of Antipater. Eumenes obliged her and moved north into Phrygia to winter.

Despite his superior military skills, Eumenes' Macedonian generals approached him about one of them taking overall command. Eumenes retorted that "formalities and technicalities would not protect them from death and destruction". To further guarantee the loyalty of subordinates, Eumenes sold off the estates of Phrygia to them and provided military support to claim the purchased land from the, obviously, unwilling and disgruntled Phrygian property owners. This revenue was used to pay his soldiers.

After the Conference at Triparadisus

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Print made in the late 17th century, depicting Eumenes, by M. Burg.

Following the Conference at Triparadisus, Antigonus first placed a bounty on the Greek general's head of 100 talents of gold. News of this came immediately after Eumenes' financial rewards, so his officers and men were outraged and redoubled their efforts to protect their leader, assigning a large bodyguard of 1000 men to protect him at all times. Eumenes was also granted the privilege of wearing a purple hat and cloak, an honour usually only granted to a Macedonian king.

In 319 BC, Antigonus marched his army into Cappodocia and engaged Eumenes at the Battle of Orkynia. Here, Eumenes was defeated due to an unknown act of a traitor who Antigonus possibly bribed. Although defeated, Eumenes swiftly acted to chase down and execute this traitor, which restored the faith of his men.

Following this battle, Antigonus neglected to address the dead and immediately set off in pursuit for Eumenes. Determined to follow tradition, Eumenes made the bold and unexpected move to regain the battlefield so that he could construct a proper funeral pyre for the dead. This action greatly impressed Antigonus.

Remainder of the campaign

[edit]

The remainder of the campaign turned into a battle of manoeuvre, with Eumenes avoiding further battle with Antigonus. At one point, Eumenes was in a position to capture the baggage of Antigonus' forces. Eumenes knew that he would not be able to prevent his soldiers from plundering this loot if they found out about it and also that doing so would decrease the essential mobility of his forces. Eumenes dispatched a private message to his old friend, the general Menander, advising him to move the baggage uphill so that its capture would be impossible. Menander immediately followed this advice. He and his fellow officers were shocked by this move and thought Eumenes to be a paragon of virtue. Only Antigonus knew of Eumenes' real motives. This action is also ironic when compared to the steps Antigonus had to take to finally defeat Eumenes.

The following winter, Eumenes disbanded his army, save for a small, crack force of 500 cavalry and 200 heavy infantry and holed up in Nora, a strong fortress on the border between Cappadocia and Lycaonia. Antigonus arrived shortly and decided to enter into negotiation with Eumenes instead of undergoing a lengthy siege.

Antigonus wanted to acquire Eumenes as his own officer and so first demanded that Eumenes address him as a superior officer, to which Eumenes replied "while I am able to wield a sword, I shall think no man greater than myself".

During negotiations, Eumenes was unable to secure a deal he thought fitting and so was willing to hold out longer for a more favourable position in the imperial hierarchy. Antigonus then departed with his army, leaving behind only forces sufficient to blockade Nora.

In the cramped city, Eumenes was forced to come up with novel solutions so that his men and horses remained in fighting shape including; emptying large rooms where men exercised on a set schedule, and creating a suspension device, likened to an ancient treadmill, on which horses could run.

Eumenes held out for more than a year until the death of Antipater threw his opponents into disarray.[42]

The Second War of the Diadochi

[edit]

Antipater had left the regency to his friend Polyperchon instead of his son Cassander. Cassander, therefore, allied himself with Antigonus, Lysimachus and Ptolemy, while Eumenes allied himself with Polyperchon.[42] He was able to escape from Nora by tricking the Antigonid diplomat, his friend and countryman Hieronymus of Cardia, sent to negotiate his surrender, into having him swear an oath of loyalty to the two kings, Philip III and Alexander IV instead of Antigonus himself. By swearing an oath to an infant and a developmentally disabled man, this essentially gave Eumenes free rein to act in whatever manner he saw as in the best interest of the Argead Dynasty and, therefore, himself.

Eumenes acted quickly to muster his army and marched into Cilicia, where he allied with Antigenes and Teutamus, the commanders of the famous Macedonian Silver Shields.[73] Eumenes again demonstrated his cleverness and was able to secure control over these men by playing on their loyalty to, and superstitious awe of, Alexander. [74] He claimed that Alexander had visited him in a dream and told him that he would be present with them at every battle. Eumenes even went so far as to set up a tent for the late conqueror complete with a throne. He used the royal treasury at Kyinda to recruit an army of mercenaries to add to his own troops.[75]

In 317 BC, Eumenes left Cilicia and marched into Syria and Phoenicia, and began to raise a naval force on behalf of Polyperchon.[76] When it was ready, he sent the fleet west to reinforce Polyperchon, but it was met by Antigonus's fleet off the coast of Cilicia, and the fleet of Eumenes changed sides.[77]

Meanwhile, Antigonus had settled his affairs in Asia Minor and marched east to take out Eumenes before he could do further damage. Eumenes somehow had advance knowledge of this and marched out of Phoenica, through Syria into Mesopotamia, with the idea of gathering support in the upper satrapies.[78]

Eumenes in the East

[edit]

Eumenes gained the support of Amphimachos, the satrap of Mesopotamia,[79] then marched his army into Northern Babylonia, where he put them into winter quarters. During the winter he negotiated with Seleucus, the satrap of Babylonia, and Peithon, the satrap of Media, seeking their help against Antigonus.[80] Unable to sway Seleucus and Peithon, Eumenes left his winter quarters early and marched on Susa, a major royal treasury, in Susiana.[81] In Susa, Eumenes sent letters to all the satraps to the north and east of Susiana, ordering them in the kings' names to join him with all their forces.[82] When the satraps joined Eumenes he had a considerable force, with which he could look forward with some confidence to doing battle against Antigonus.[83] Eumenes then marched southeastwards into Persia, where he picked up additional reinforcements.[84]

Antigonus, meanwhile, had reached Susa and left Seleucus there to besiege the place while he himself marched after Eumenes. At the river Kopratas, Eumenes surprised Antigonus during the crossing of the river and killed or captured 4,000 of his men.[85] Antigonus, faced with disaster, decided to abandon the crossing and turned back northward, marching up into Media, threatening the upper satrapies.[86] Eumenes wanted to march westward and cut Antigonus's supply lines, but the satraps refused to abandon their satrapies and forced Eumenes to stay in the east.

In the late summer of 316 BC, Antigonus moved southward again in the hope of bringing Eumenes to battle and ending the war quickly. Eventually, the two armies met in southern Media and fought the indecisive Battle of Paraitakene.[87] Antigonus, whose casualties were more numerous, force marched his army to safety the next night.[88] During the winter of 316–315 BC, Antigonus tried to surprise Eumenes in Persis by marching his army across a desert and catching his enemy off guard; unfortunately, he was observed by some locals who reported it to his opponents.[89] A few days later both armies drew up for battle. The Battle of Gabiene was as indecisive as the previous battle at Parataikene.[90] According to Plutarch and Diodorus, Eumenes had won the battle but lost control of his army's baggage camp thanks to his ally Peucestas' duplicity or incompetence. In addition to all the loot of the Silver Shields (treasure accumulated over 30 years of successful warfare including gold, silver, gems and other booty), the soldiers' women and children were taken, and Eumenes' army wished to negotiate their return.

Teutamus, one of their commanders, sent the request to Antigonus, who responded by demanding they give him Eumenes. The Silver Shields complied, arrested Eumenes and his officers, and handed them over.[91] The war was thus at an end. Eumenes was placed under guard while Antigonus held a council to ponder his fate. Antigonus, supported by his son Demetrius, was disinclined to kill Eumenes, but most of the council insisted that he execute Eumenes and so it was decided.[92]

Death

[edit]

Antigonus, according to Plutarch, starved Eumenes for three days but finally sent an executioner to dispatch him when the time came for him to move his camp. Eumenes' body was given to his friends to be burnt with honour, and his ashes were conveyed in a silver urn to his wife and children.[92]

Legacy

[edit]

Despite Eumenes' undeniable skills as a general, he never commanded the full allegiance of the Macedonian officers in his army and died as a result. He was an able commander who did his utmost to maintain the unity of Alexander's empire in Asia, and is seen as being Antigonus' only military equal.[93] Still, his efforts were frustrated by generals and satraps both nominally under his command and under that of his enemies.[42] Eumenes was hated and despised by many fellow commanders—certainly for his successes and supposedly for his non-Macedonian (in the tribal sense) background and prior office as Royal Secretary.

Eumenes defeat has been seen as spelling the end for the Argead loyalists, leaving Alexander's Empire "in the hands of men who owed no loyalty except to themselves."[94] Romm writes that "Through sheer talent Eumenes had risen through the ranks; despite his Greek origins, he had come desperately close to gaining supreme power."[95] Eumenes has been seen as a tragic figure, a man who seemingly tried to do the right thing but was overcome by a more ruthless enemy and the treachery of his own soldiers; in essence, that he failed not due to any lack of ability, but from "ill luck, bad alliances, and one very capable opponent."[96]

Historie is a historical fiction manga series that tells the life story of Eumenes.

Family

[edit]

Pharnabazus III, Persian satrap of Phrygia, was his brother-in-law, as Eumenes married Artonis, the daughter of Persian satrap Artabazus II and sister of Pharnabazus III.

For Barsine, the daughter of Artabazus, who was the first lady Alexander took to his bed in Asia, and who brought him a son named Heracles, had two sisters; one of which, called Apame, he gave to Ptolemy; and the other, called Artonis, he gave to Eumenes, at the time when he was selecting Persian ladies as wives for his friends.

— Plutarch, The Life of Eumenes.[97]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ https://www.academia.edu/40812159 p.1 asserts they were struck in 317-316 BC, before the battles of Paraitakene and Gabiene in 315.
  2. ^ Anson 2015, p. 41.
  3. ^ Heckel 2006, p. 120; Anson 2015, p. 41; Nep., 13.1.
  4. ^ Waterfield 2011, p. 102; Heckel 2006, p. 120. However other scholars believes Eumenes did so opportunistically. Essentially, that he remained loyal because; Bosworth 2005, p. 168, "he had no alternative but loyalty to the crown" if he wanted to pursue his own interests and retain power. In short; Anson 2015, p. 1 "As with his contemporaries, Eumenes' first concern was his own self-interest, not any loftier ideals".
  5. ^ Anson 2015, p. 42; Nep., 1.2-3: Eumenes was probably of very high birth.
  6. ^ Heckel 2006, p. 120. Claims that his father was a waggoner or musician are probably false and invented to shame Eumenes, since these were considered unmanly professions. Generally; Anson 2015, pp. 41, 42 argues these may simply be another romantic (and false) "rags-to-riches" story.
  7. ^ Anson 2015, pp. 42–43; Plut. Eum., 1.2.
  8. ^ Nep., 1.5.
  9. ^ Anson 2015, p. 43.
  10. ^ Heckel 2006, p. 120; Anson 2015, pp. 51–53; Diod., 18.58.2. Anson believes this statement originates after Philip's death, when Olympias returned to Macedon and attacked her political rivals. Eumenes is said to have been "long hated" by Antipater, maybe because of the latter's hatred of Olympias or his support of Hecataeus; Plut. Eum., 3.4.
  11. ^ Anson 2015, pp. 46, 57; Plut. Eum., 1.3, "Neoptolemus,the commander of the Shield-bearers, after Alexander's death, said that he had followed the king with shield and spear, but Eumenes with pen and paper,".
  12. ^ Anson 2015, pp. 49, 52.
  13. ^ Anson 2015, p. 51; Chisholm 1911.
  14. ^ Anson 2015, p. 53.
  15. ^ Plut. Eum., 2.1, 2.4.
  16. ^ Anson 2015, p. 54 argues the enmity was personal, not political. After Hephaestion's death in 324, Eumenes praised him and contributed monetarily to his tomb construction to smooth over relations with Alexander.
  17. ^ Plut. Eum., 1.2.
  18. ^ Anson 2015, p. 57.
  19. ^ Romm 2011, p. 39; Heckel 2006, p. 120. Perdiccas himself was promoted to chiliarch, second in command to Alexander, the office Hephaestion held before his death.
  20. ^ Anson 2015, p. 57, who believes Eumenes appointment could have been honorary or due to his skill in commanding cavalry.
  21. ^ Diod., 17.107.
  22. ^ Anson 2015, p. 60.
  23. ^ Anson 2015, p. 68. Eumenes was considered, apparently, one of "the chief and most influential commanders of the [cavalry]".
  24. ^ Bosworth 2005, p. 21.
  25. ^ Anson 2015, p. 68; Romm 2011, p. 66; Bosworth 2005, p. 24; Plut. Eum., 3.1. Anson and Bosworth believe Eumenes did so in collusion with Perdiccas, who was leading the officers.
  26. ^ Anson 2015, p. 69; Plut. Eum., 3.1.
  27. ^ Plut. Eum., 1.3.
  28. ^ Anson 2015, p. 78.
  29. ^ Bosworth 2005, p. 11. Alexander apparently wanted to conquer all of northern Africa, Carthage, Spain, Sicily, and then Italy, and to accomplish this planned to found numerous cities and a war fleet of a thousand ships. Some scholars believe Perdiccas invented these plans to consolidate his authority as regent.
  30. ^ Anson 2015, p. 78; Heckel 2006, p. 121.
  31. ^ Anson 2015, p. 79; Plut. Eum., 3.2.
  32. ^ Plut. Eum., 3.2.
  33. ^ Anson 2015, p. 79.
  34. ^ Anson 2015, p. 80.
  35. ^ Plut. Eum., 3.3.
  36. ^ Anson 2015, p. 82.
  37. ^ Plut. Eum., 3.5.
  38. ^ Anson 2015, p. 84; Heckel 2006, p. 121.
  39. ^ Anson 2015, p. 84; Plut. Eum., 3.5.
  40. ^ Bosworth 2005, p. 38.
  41. ^ Anson 2015, p. 84.
  42. ^ a b c d e Chisholm 1911.
  43. ^ Anson 2015, pp. 86, 87; Plut. Eum., 3.7. Eumenes' broad authority in his satrapy is probably due to his loyalty to Perdiccas; the regent trusted him, and he was thus granted greater discretion and independence of action.
  44. ^ Anson 2015, pp. 88, 89.
  45. ^ Anson 2015, pp. 89, 90.
  46. ^ a b Anson 2015, p. 91.
  47. ^ Anson 2015, p. 91; Plut. Eum., 4.2, 4.3. Concessions as in lowered taxes and gifts of money. This incident, with the Greek Eumenes succeeding where the Macedonian Neoptolemus could not, may have began the latter's hatred for Eumenes.
  48. ^ Anson 2015, p. 94.
  49. ^ Romm 2011, p. 169; Anson 2015, pp. 96–97, who suggests that Eumenes support for Cleopatra was not out of royal loyalty, but because he did not want Perdiccas to become allied to his enemy, Antipater. Eumenes may have thought that conflict with Antipater for the Perdiccan government was inevitable in any case, p.102.
  50. ^ Plut. Eum., 4.3.
  51. ^ Anson 2015, pp. 101, 104. Anson believes Eumenes had kept in contact and advised Cleopatra after Perdiccas married Nicaea.
  52. ^ Anson 2015, p. 103. Perdiccas' marriage to Cleopatra would give him a claim to the Macedonian throne.
  53. ^ Anson 2015, p. 103.
  54. ^ Anson 2015, pp. 105-106. Perdiccas had planned for it to travel to Macedon and further his claim to the throne, the Perdiccan government also believed Ptolemy had been in contact with Antipater and Craterus.
  55. ^ Anson 2015, pp. 106-107. He probably received the command due to his loyalty to Perdiccas, skill in battle, and victories in Cappadocia and Armenia. Eumenes' satrapy was also expanded to include Antigonus' old provinces.
  56. ^ Heckel 2006, p. 121.
  57. ^ a b Anson 2015, p. 111.
  58. ^ a b c Bosworth 2005, p. 58.
  59. ^ Anson 2015, p. 112.
  60. ^ a b c Anson 2015, p. 117.
  61. ^ Plut. Eum., 5.4, 5.5.
  62. ^ Plut. Eum., 5.3, 5.4. Eumenes' infantry were defeated, but he won the battle with his cavalry, capturing Neoptolemus' baggage and putting his army to rout.
  63. ^ a b Bosworth 2005, p. 59.
  64. ^ Anson 2015, pp. 109, 119. The battle took place 10 days after Neoptolemus' defection..
  65. ^ Anson 2015, p. 119.
  66. ^ Plut. Eum., 6.5-7.
  67. ^ Anson 2015, p. 120. Some traditions say Craterus was not killed in the battle, but died of his wounds after it..
  68. ^ Anson 2015, p. 121.
  69. ^ Bosworth 2005, pp. 59–60.
  70. ^ Romm 2011, p. 196.
  71. ^ Anson 2015, p. 122.
  72. ^ Diodorus Sicilus, Bibliotheca Historica, XVIII 59,1-3.
  73. ^ Diodorus Sicilus, Bibliotheca Historica, XVIII 60,1-60,3.
  74. ^ Diodorus Sicilus, Bibliotheca Historica, XVIII 61,4-5
  75. ^ Diodorus Sicilus, Bibliotheca Historica, XVIII 63,6.
  76. ^ Polyainos,Strategemata IV 6,9.
  77. ^ Diodorus Sicilus, Bibliotheca Historica, XVIII 73,1-2.
  78. ^ Diodorus Sicilus, Bibliotheca Historica, XVIII 39,6 and XIX 27,4.
  79. ^ Diodorus Sicilus, Bibliotheca Historica, XIX 12,1-2.
  80. ^ Diodorus Sicilus, Bibliotheca Historica, XIX 12,5-13,5.
  81. ^ Diodorus Sicilus, Bibliotheca Historica, XIX 13,6-7.
  82. ^ Richard A. Billows, Antigonos the One-Eyed and the Creation of the Hellenistic State p.90.
  83. ^ Diodorus Sicilus, Bibliotheca Historica, XIX 17,3-7.
  84. ^ Diodorus Sicilus, Bibliotheca Historica, XIX 18,3-7; Plutarch, Life of Eumenes, 14,1-2.
  85. ^ Diodorus Sicilus, Bibliotheca Historica, XIX 19,1-2.
  86. ^ Diodorus Sicilus, Bibliotheca Historica, XIX 26-32,2; Richard A. Billows, Antigonos the One-Eyed and the Creation of the Hellenistic State pp.95-98.
  87. ^ Diodorus Sicilus, Bibliotheca Historica, XIX 32,1-2
  88. ^ Diodorus Sicilus, Bibliotheca Historica, XIX 37,2-6; Plutarch, Life of Eumenes, 15,3-4; Polyainos, Strategemata IV 6,11 and 8,4.
  89. ^ Diodorus Sicilus, Bibliotheca Historica, XIX 42,1-3; Plutarch, Life of Eumenes, 16,5-6; Polyainos, Strategemata IV 6,13; Richard A. Billows, Antigonos the One-Eyed and the Creation of the Hellenistic State pp.100-102.
  90. ^ Diodorus Sicilus, Bibliotheca Historica, XIX 42,4-43,8; Plutarch, Life of Eumenes, 16,4-17,1; Polyainos, Strategemata IV 6,13; Richard A. Billows, Antigonos the One-Eyed and the Creation of the Hellenistic State p.102-103.
  91. ^ a b Diodorus Sicilus, Bibliotheca Historica, XIX 43,8-44,3; Plutarch, Life of Eumenes, 17,1-19,1; Richard A. Billows, Antigonos the One-Eyed and the Creation of the Hellenistic State p.104.
  92. ^ Billows 1990, p. 318.
  93. ^ Waterfield 2011, p. 102.
  94. ^ Romm 2011, p. 303.
  95. ^ Anson 2015, p. 261.
  96. ^ Plutarch: Life of Eumenes - translation.

Bibliography

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Modern sources

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