Timeline of historic inventions
This article needs additional citations for verification. (November 2023) |
The timeline of historic inventions is a chronological list of particularly important or significant technological inventions and their inventors, where known.[a]
History of technology |
---|
Paleolithic
[edit]The dates listed in this section refer to the earliest evidence of an invention found and dated by archaeologists (or in a few cases, suggested by indirect evidence). Dates are often approximate and change as more research is done, reported and seen. Older examples of any given technology are often found. The locations listed are for the site where the earliest solid evidence has been found, but especially for the earlier inventions, there is little certainty how close that may be to where the invention took place.
Lower Paleolithic
[edit]The Lower Paleolithic period lasted over 3 million years, during which there many human-like species evolved including toward the end of this period, Homo sapiens. The original divergence between humans and chimpanzees occurred 13 (Mya), however interbreeding continued until as recently as 4 Ma, with the first species clearly belonging to the human (and not chimpanzee) lineage being Australopithecus anamensis. Some species are controversial among paleoanthropologists, who disagree whether they are species on their own or not. Here Homo ergaster is included under Homo erectus, while Homo rhodesiensis is included under Homo heidelbergensis.
During this period the Quaternary glaciation began (about 2.58 million years ago), and continues to today. It has been an ice age, with cycles of 40–100,000 years alternating between long, cold, more glaciated periods, and shorter warmer periods – interglacial episodes.
- 3.3 Mya – 2.6 Mya: Stone tools - found in modern-day Kenya are older and only found on the archetype road. Ancient stone tools from Ethiopia (Oldowan) were hand-crafted by Australopithecus or related people.[1][2][further explanation needed]
- 2.3 Mya: Earliest likely control of fire and cooking, by Homo habilis[3][4][5]
- 1.76 Mya: Advanced (Acheulean) stone tools in Kenya by Homo erectus[6][7]
- 1.75 Mya – 150 kya: Varying estimates for the origin of language[8][9]
- 1.5 Mya: Bone tools in Africa by Homo erectus[10]
- 900 kya – 40 kya: Boats[11][12]
- 500 kya: Hafting in South Africa by Homo heidelbergensis[13]
- 450 kya – 500 kya: Woodworking construction in Zambia by Homo heidelbergensis[14] (The oldest known surviving buildings are made from stone and date back no more than 9,500 years.[15])
- 420 – 200 kya: Food storage in the form of uncracked bones saved for their marrow in Qesem cave, Israel.[16]
- 400 kya: Pigments in Zambia by Homo heidelbergensis[17]
- 400 kya – 300 kya: Spears in Germany[18][19] likely by Homo heidelbergensis
Middle Paleolithic
[edit]The dawn of Homo sapiens around 300 kya coincides with the start of the Middle Paleolithic period. Towards the middle of this 250,000-year period, humans begin to migrate out of Africa, and the later part of the period shows the beginning of long-distance trade, religious rites and other behavior associated with Behavioral modernity.
- 320 kya: The trade and long-distance transportation of resources (e.g. obsidian), use of pigments, and possible making of projectile points in Kenya[20][21][22]
- 279 kya: Hafting and early stone-tipped projectile weapons in Ethiopia[23]
- 200 kya: Simple glue (adhesive) made of one kind of material, birch tar, in Central Italy by Neanderthals.[24]
- 200 kya: Beds in South Africa.[25][26][27]
- 170 kya – 83 kya: Clothing (among anatomically modern humans in Africa).[28] Some other evidence suggests that humans may have begun wearing clothing as far back as 100,000 to 500,000 years ago.[29]
- 164 kya – 47 kya: Heat treating of stone blades in South Africa.[30]
- 135 kya – 100 kya: Beads in Israel and Algeria[31]
- 100 kya: Compound paints made in South Africa[32][33][34]
- 100 kya: Funerals (in the form of burial) in Israel[35]
- 90 kya: Harpoons in the Democratic Republic of the Congo.[36]
- 70 kya – 60 kya in Sibudu Cave in South Africa by Homo sapiens:
- Compound adhesives[37][38]
- Arrows and other evidence of bow-and-arrow technology[39][40][41]
- Sewing needle[42][43]
- 61 kya – 62 kya: Cave painting in Spain by Neanderthal[44]
- 55.8–51.2 kya: Representational and Narrative art in Indonesia by Homo Sapiens[45]
Upper Paleolithic to Early Mesolithic
[edit]50 kya was long regarded as the beginning of behavioral modernity, which defined the Upper Paleolithic period. The upper Paleolithic lasted nearly 40,000 years, while research continues to push the beginnings of behavioral modernity earlier into the Middle Paleolithic. Behavioral modernity is characterized by the widespread observation of religious rites, artistic expression and the appearance of tools made for purely intellectual or artistic pursuits.
- 49 kya – 30 kya: Ground stone tools – fragments of an axe in Australia date to 49–45 ka, more appear in Japan closer to 30 ka, and elsewhere closer to the Neolithic.[46][47]
- 47 kya: The oldest-known mines in the world are from Eswatini, and extracted hematite for the production of the red pigment ochre.[48][49]
- 45 kya – 9 kya: Earliest evidence of shoes, suggested by changes in foot bone morphology in China by Tianyuan man.[50] The earliest physical shoes found so far are bark sandals dated to 10 to 9 kya in Fort Rock Cave, United States.[51]
- 44 kya – 42 kya: Tally sticks (see Lebombo bone) in Eswatini[52]
- 42 kya: Flute in Germany[53][54]
- 37 kya: Mortar and pestle in Southwest Asia[55]
- 32-28 kya: Rope and Cords for "hafting stone tools, weaving baskets, or sewing garments," according to Elis Kvavadze et al.[56][57]
- 31 kya: Amputation and surgery.[58] Medicine in a meaningful sense likely predates the human-chimpanzee split, as, for example, herbal medicine has been observed in other primates.[59]
- 28 kya: Ceramics (direct evidence) and weaving (impressions left in the ceramics) in Moravia[60][61] (Czech Republic) and Georgia. (The oldest piece of woven cloth found so far was in Çatalhöyük, Turkey and dated to about 9,000 years ago.[62])
- 24 kya: Oldest known ceramic sculpture[63]
- 23 kya: Domestication of the dog in Siberia.[64]
- 22 – 17 kya Bullroarer[65][66][67]
- 22 kya: Fish hook in Okinawa Island, modern day Japan.[68][69]
- 21 – 3.7 kya: Star chart in France,[70][71] and later Spain,[72] Kashmir,[73] Germany,[74][75] and Egypt.[76]
- 17.5 kya: Spear-thrower (atlatl), found in France.[77]
- 16 kya: Pottery in China[78]
- 14.5 kya: Bread in Jordan[79][80]
Agricultural and proto-agricultural eras
[edit]The end of the Last Glacial Period ("ice age") and the beginning of the Holocene around 11.7 ka coincide with the Agricultural Revolution, marking the beginning of the agricultural era, which persisted there until the industrial revolution.[81]
Neolithic and Late Mesolithic
[edit]During the Neolithic period, lasting 8400 years, stone began to be used for construction, and remained a predominant hard material for toolmaking. Copper and arsenic bronze were developed towards the end of this period, and of course the use of many softer materials such as wood, bone, and fibers continued. Domestication spread both in the sense of how many species were domesticated, and how widespread the practice became.
- 10,000 BC – 9000 BC: Agriculture in the Fertile Crescent[82][83]
- 10,000 BC – 9000 BC: Domestication of sheep in Southwest Asia[84][85] (followed shortly by pigs, goats and cattle)
- 9500 BC – 9000 BC: Oldest known surviving building – Göbekli Tepe, in Turkey[86][87]
- 9000 BC – 6000 BC: Domestication of rice in China[88]
- 9000 BC: Mudbricks (unfired bricks), and clay mortar in Jericho.[89][90][91]
- 8400 BC: Oldest known water well in Cyprus.[92]
- 8000 BC – 7500 BC: Proto-city – large permanent settlements, such as Tell es-Sultan (Jericho) and Çatalhöyük, Turkey.[93]
- 7000 BC: Alcohol fermentation – specifically mead, in China[94]
- 7000 BC: Sled dog and Dog sled, in Siberia.[95]
- 7000 BC – 3300 BC: Tanned leather in Mehrgarh, Pakistan.[96]
- 6500 BC: Evidence of lead smelting in Çatalhöyük, Turkey[97]
- 6000 BC: Kiln in Mesopotamia (Iraq)[98]
- 6th millennium BC: Irrigation in Khuzistan, Iran[99][100]
- 6000 BC – 3200 BC: Proto-writing in present-day Egypt, Iraq, Romania, China, India and Pakistan.[101]
- 5500 – 5200 BC: Oldest evidence of cheese found, in Poland.[102][103]
- 5500 BC: Sailing - pottery depictions of sail boats, in Mesopotamia,[104] and later ancient Egypt[105][106]
- 5000 BC: Copper smelting in Serbia.[107][108]
- 5000 BC: Seawall in Tel Hreiz.[109]
- 5th millennium BC: Lacquer in China[110][111]
- 5000 BC: Cotton thread, in Mehrgarh, Pakistan, connecting the copper beads of a bracelet.[112][113][114]
- 5000 BC – 4500 BC: Rowing oars in China[115][116]
- 4650 BC: Copper-tin bronze found at the Pločnik (Serbia) site, and belonging to the Vinča culture, believed to be produced from smelting a natural tin baring copper ore, Stannite.[117]
- 4500 BC – 3500 BC: Lost-wax casting in Israel[118] or the Indus Valley[119]
- 4400 BC: Fired bricks in China.[120]
- 4000 BC: Probable time period of the first diamond-mines in the world, in Southern India.[121]
- 4000 BC: Paved roads, in and around the Mesopotamian city of Ur, Iraq.[122]
- 4000 BC: Plumbing. The earliest pipes were made of clay, and are found at the Temple of Bel at Nippur in Babylonia.[123][b]
- 4000 BC: Oldest evidence of locks, the earliest example discovered in the ruins of Nineveh, the capital of ancient Assyria.[126]
- 4000 BC – 3400 BC: Oldest evidence of wheels, found in the countries of Ukraine, Poland, and Germany.[127][128]
- 3630 BC: Silk garments (sericulture) in China[129]
- 3500 BC: Probable first domestication of the horse in the Eurasian Steppes.[130][131][132]
- 3500 BC: Wine as general anaesthesia in Sumer.[133]
- 3500 BC: Seal (emblem) invented around in the Near East, at the contemporary sites of Uruk in southern Mesopotamia and slightly later at Susa in south-western Iran during the Proto-Elamite period, and they follow the development of stamp seals in the Halaf culture or slightly earlier.[134]
- 3500 BC: Ploughing, on a site in Bubeneč, Czech Republic.[135] Evidence, c. 2800 BC, has also been found at Kalibangan, Indus Valley (modern-day India).[136]
- 3400 BC – 3100 BC: Tattoos in southern Europe[137][138]
Bronze Age
[edit]The beginning of bronze-smelting coincides with the emergence of the first cities and of writing in the Ancient Near East and the Indus Valley. The Bronze Age starting in Eurasia in the 4th millennia BC and ended, in Eurasia, c.1200 BC.
- Late 4th millennium BC: Writing – in Sumer and Egypt.[139][140][141][142]
- 3300 BC: The first documented swords. They have been found in Arslantepe, Turkey, are made from arsenical bronze, and are about 60 cm (24 in) long.[143][144] Some of them are inlaid with silver.[144]
- 3300 BC: City in Uruk, Sumer, Mesopotamia (modern-day Iraq).[145]
- 3250 BC: One of the earliest known confirmed hats was worn by a man (nicknamed Ötzi) whose body (including his hat) was found frozen in a mountain between Austria and Italy. He was found wearing a bearskin cap with a chin strap, made of several hides stitched together, essentially resembling a Russian fur hat without the flaps.[146][147][148]
- 3200 BC: Dry Latrines in the city of Uruk, Iraq, with later dry squat Toilets, that added raised fired brick foot platforms, and pedestal toilets, all over clay pipe constructed drains.[149][150][151]
- 3200 BC: Earliest actual wheel ever found, the Ljubljana Marshes Wheel, made of wood, in Slovenia.[128]
- 3000 BC: Devices functionally equivalent to dice, in the form of flat two-sided throwsticks, are seen in the Egyptian game of Senet.[152] Perhaps the oldest known dice, resembling modern ones, were excavated as part of a backgammon-like game set at the Burnt City, an archeological site in south-eastern Iran, estimated to be from between 2800 and 2500 BC.[153][154] Later, terracotta dice were used at the Indus Valley site of Mohenjo-daro (modern-day Pakistan).[155]
- 3000 BC: Tin extraction in Central Asia[156]
- 3000 BC – 2560 BC: Papyrus in Egypt[157][158][159][160]
- 3000 BC: Reservoir in Girnar, Indus Valley (modern-day India).[161]
- 3000 BC: Receipt in Ancient Mesopotamia (Iraq)[162]
- 3000 BC – 2800 BC: Prosthesis first documented in the Ancient Near East, in ancient Egypt and Iran, specifically for an eye prosthetics, the eye found in Iran was likely made of bitumen paste that was covered with a thin layer of gold.[163]
- 3000 BC – 2500 BC: Rhinoplasty in Egypt.[164][165]
- 2650 BC: The Ruler, or Measuring rod, in the subdivided Nippur, copper rod, of the Sumerian Civilisation (modern-day Iraq). [c]
- 2600 BC: Planned city in Indus Valley (modern-day: India, Pakistan).[167][168]
- 2600 BC: Public sewage and sanitation systems in Indus Valley sites such as Mohenjo-daro and Rakhigarhi (modern-day: India, Pakistan).[169]
- 2600 BC: Public bath in Mohenjo-daro, Indus Valley (modern-day Pakistan).[170]
- 2600 BC: Levee in Indus Valley.[171]
- 2600 BC: Balance weights and scales, from the Fourth Dynasty of Egypt; examples of Deben (unit) balance weights, from reign of Sneferu (c. 2600 BC) have been attributed.[172]
- 2556 BC: Docks structure in Wadi al-Jarf, Egypt, which was developed by the reign of the Pharaoh Khufu.[173][160][d]
- 2500 BC: Puppetry in the Indus Valley.[180][181]
- 2400 BC: Fork in Bronze Age Qijia culture in China[182]
- 2400 BC: Copper pipes, the Pyramid of Sahure, an adjoining temple complex at Abusir, was discovered to have a network of copper drainage pipes.[125]
- 2400 BC: Touchstone in the Indus Valley site of Banawali (modern-day India).[183]
- 2300 BC: Dictionary in Mesopotamia.[184]
- 2200 BC – 2000 BC: Iron smelting in Kaman-Kalehöyük.[185]
- 2200 BC: Protractor, Phase IV, Lothal, Indus Valley (modern-day India), a Xancus shell cylinder with sawn grooves, at right angles, in its top and bottom surfaces, has been proposed as an angle marking tool.[186][187]
- 2000 BC: Water clock by at least the old Babylonian period (c. 2000 – c. 1600 BC),[188] but possibly earlier from Mohenjo-Daro in the Indus Valley.[189]
- 2000 BC: Chariot in Russia and Kazakhstan[190]
- 2000 BC: Fountain in Lagash, Sumer.
- 2000 BC: Scissors, in Mesopotamia.[191]
- 1850 BC: Proto-alphabet (Proto-Sinaitic script) in Egypt.[192]
- 1600 BC: Surgical treatise appeared in Egypt.[193]
- 1500 BC: Sundial in Ancient Egypt[194] or Babylonia (modern-day Iraq).
- 1500 BC: Glass manufacture in either Mesopotamia or Ancient Egypt.[195]
- 1500 BC: Seed drill in Babylonia.[196]
- 1500 BC: Prosthetic limb in india mentioned in vedas (warrior queen vishpala).
- 1400 BC: Rubber,[197] Mesoamerican ballgame.[197][198]
- 1400 BC – 1200 BC: Concrete in Tiryns (Mycenaean Greece),[199][200] though it was not yet waterproof.
- 1300 BC: Lathe in Ancient Egypt.[201]
- 1200 BC: Distillation is described on Akkadian tablets documenting perfumery operations.[202]
Iron Age
[edit]The Late Bronze Age collapse occurs around 1200 BC,[203] extinguishing most Bronze-Age Near Eastern cultures, and significantly weakening the rest. This is coincident with the complete collapse of the Indus Valley Civilisation. This event is followed by the beginning of the Iron Age. We define the Iron Age as ending in 510 BC for the purposes of this article, even though the typical definition is region-dependent (e.g. 510 BC in Greece, 322 BC in India, 200 BC in China), thus being an 800-year period.[e]
- 1100 BC Star catalogue — Three Stars Each is the earliest known catalogue in long-running tradition of Babylonian astronomy,[204] likely drawing on Sumerian[205] and/or Elamite constellations.[206]
- 700 BC: Saddle (fringed cloths or pads used by Assyrian cavalry).[207]
- 7th century BC: The royal Library of Ashurbanipal at Nineveh had 30,000 clay tablets, in several languages, organized according to shape and separated by content. The first recorded example of a library catalog.[208]
- 688 BC: Waterproof concrete in use, by the Assyrians.[209] Later, the Romans developed concretes that could *set* underwater,[210] and used concrete extensively for construction from 300 BC to 476 AD.[211]
- 650 BC: Crossbow in China.[212]
- 650 BC: Windmills in Persia.
- 600 BC: Coins in Phoenicia (Modern Lebanon) or Lydia.[213]
- Late 7th or early 6th century BC: Wagonway called Diolkos across the Isthmus of Corinth in Ancient Greece.
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Trispastos_scheme.svg/220px-Trispastos_scheme.svg.png)
- 6th century BC – 10th century AD: High Carbon Steel, produced by the Closed Crucible method, later known as Wootz steel, of South India.[215][216][f]
- 6th century BC: University in Taxila, of the Indus Valley, then part of the kingdom of Gandhara, of the Achaemenid Empire (modern-day Pakistan).
- 6th century – 2nd century BC: Systematization of medicine and surgery in the Sushruta Samhita in Vedic Northern India.[218][219][220] Documented procedures to:
- Perform cataract surgery (couching). Babylonian and Egyptian texts, a millennium before, depict and mention oculists, but not the procedure itself.[221]
- Perform Caesarean section.[222]
- Construct Prosthetic limbs.[222]
- Perform Plastic surgery, though reconstructive nasal surgery is described in millennia older Egyptian papyri.[222][223]
- Late 6th century BC: Crank motion (rotary quern) in Carthage[224] or 5th century BC Celtiberian Spain[225][226] Later during the Roman empire, a mechanism appeared that incorporated a connecting rod.
- Before 5th century BC: Loan deeds in Upanishadic India.[227]
- 500 BC: Lighthouse in Greece.[228]
Classical antiquity and medieval era
[edit]5th century BC
[edit]- 500 – 200 BC: Toe stirrup, depicted in 2nd century Buddhist art, of the Sanchi and Bhaja Caves, of the Deccan Satavahana empire (modern-day India)[229][230] although may have originated as early as 500 BC.[231]
- 485 BC: Catapult by Ajatashatru in Magadha, India.[232][233]
- 485 BC: Scythed chariot by Ajatashatru in Magadha, India.[232][233]
- 5th century BC: Cast iron in Ancient China: Confirmed by archaeological evidence, the earliest cast iron is developed in China by the early 5th century BC during the Zhou dynasty (1122–256 BC), the oldest specimens found in a tomb of Luhe County in Jiangsu province.[234][235][236]
- 480 BC: Spiral stairs (Temple A) in Selinunte, Sicily (see also List of ancient spiral stairs)[237][238]
- By 407 BC: Early descriptions of what may be a Wheelbarrow in Greece.[239] First actual depiction of one (tomb mural) shows up in China in 118 AD.[240]
- By 400 BC: Camera obscura described by Mo-tzu (or Mozi) in China.[241]
4th century BC
[edit]![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Mus%C3%A9e_du_Louvre_-_Antiquit%C3%A9s_%C3%A9gyptiennes_-_Salle_06_-_02f.jpg/220px-Mus%C3%A9e_du_Louvre_-_Antiquit%C3%A9s_%C3%A9gyptiennes_-_Salle_06_-_02f.jpg)
- 4th century BC: Traction trebuchet in Ancient China.[243]
- 4th century BC: Gears in Ancient China
- 4th century BC: Reed pens, utilising a split nib, were used to write with ink on Papyrus in Egypt.[243]
- 4th century BC: Nailed Horseshoe, with 4 bronze shoes found in an Etruscan tomb.[244]
- 375 BC – 350 BC: Animal-driven rotary mill in Carthage.[245][246]
- By the late 4th century BC: Corporations in either the Maurya Empire of India[247] or in Ancient Rome (Collegium).
- Late 4th century BC: Cheque in the Maurya Empire of India.[248]
- Late 4th century BC: Potassium nitrate manufacturing and military use in the Seleucid Empire.[249][verification needed]
- Late 4th century BC: Formal systems by Pāṇini in India, possibly during the reign of Chandragupta Maurya.[250]
- 4th to 3rd century BC: Zinc production in North-Western India during the Maurya Empire.[251] The earliest known zinc mines and smelting sites are from Zawar, near Udaipur, in Rajasthan.[252][253]
3rd century BC
[edit]- 3rd century BC: Analog computers in the Hellenistic world (see e.g. the Antikythera mechanism), possibly in Rhodes.[254]
- By at least the 3rd century BC: Archimedes' screw, one of the earliest hydraulic machines, was first used in the Nile river for irrigation purposes in Ancient Egypt[255]
- Early 3rd century BC: Canal lock in Canal of the Pharaohs under Ptolemy II (283–246 BC) in Hellenistic Egypt[256][257][258]
- 3rd century BC: Cam during the Hellenistic period, used in water-driven automata.[259]
- By the 3rd century BC: Water wheel. The origin is unclear: Indian Pali texts dating to the 4th century BCE refer to the cakkavattaka, which later commentaries describe as arahatta-ghati-yanta (machine with wheel-pots attached). Helaine Selin suggests that the device existed in Persia before 350 BC.[260] The clearest description of the water wheel and Liquid-driven escapement is provided by Philo of Byzantium (c. 280 – 220 BC) in the Hellenistic kingdoms.[261]
- 3rd century BC: Gimbal described by Philo of Byzantium[262]
- Late 3rd century BC: Dry dock under Ptolemy IV (221–205 BC) in Hellenistic Egypt[263]
- 3rd century BC – 2nd century BC: Blast furnace in Ancient China: The earliest discovered blast furnaces in China date to the 3rd and 2nd centuries BC, although most sites are from the later Han dynasty.[234][264]
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Museum_f%C3%BCr_Antike_Schifffahrt%2C_Mainz_02._Spritsail.jpg/220px-Museum_f%C3%BCr_Antike_Schifffahrt%2C_Mainz_02._Spritsail.jpg)
2nd century BC
[edit]- 2nd century BC: Paper in Han dynasty China[g]
- 206 BC: Compass in Han dynasty China[267]
- Early 2nd century BC: Astrolabe invented by Apollonius of Perga.
1st century BC
[edit]- 1st century BC: Segmental arch bridge (e.g. Pont-Saint-Martin or Ponte San Lorenzo) in Italy, Roman Republic[268][269]
- 1st century BC: News bulletin during the reign of Julius Caesar.[270] A paper form, i.e. the earliest newspaper, later appeared during the late Han dynasty in the form of the Dibao.[271][272][273]
- 1st century BC: Arch dam (Glanum Dam) in Gallia Narbonensis, Roman Republic (see also List of Roman dams)[274][275][276][277][278]
- Before 40 BC: Trip hammer in China[279]
- 38 BC: An empty shell Glyph for zero, is found on a Maya numerals Stela, from Chiapa de Corzo, Chiapas. Independently invented by Claudius Ptolemy, in the second century CE Egypt, and appearing in the calculations of the Almagest.
- 37 BC – 14 BC: Glass blowing developed in Jerusalem.[280][281][282]
- Before 25 BC: Reverse overshot water wheel by Roman engineers in Rio Tinto, Spain[283]
- 25 BC: Noodle in Lajia in China[284]
1st century AD
[edit]- 1st century AD: The aeolipile, a simple steam turbine is recorded by Hero of Alexandria.[285]
- 1st century AD: The first use of respiratory protective equipment is documented by Pliny the Elder (c. 23 AD–79) using animal bladder skins to protect workers in Roman mines from red lead oxide dust.[286]
- 1st century AD: Oldest surviving wine.[287]
- 1st century AD: Vending machines invented by Hero of Alexandria.
- By the 1st century AD: The double-entry bookkeeping system in the Roman Empire.[288]
2nd century
[edit]- 132: Seismometer and pendulum in Han dynasty China, built by Zhang Heng. It is a large metal urn-shaped instrument which employed either a suspended pendulum or inverted pendulum acting on inertia, like the ground tremors from earthquakes, to dislodge a metal ball by a lever trip device.[289][290]
- 2nd century: Carding in India.[291]
3rd century
[edit]![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/R%C3%B6mische_S%C3%A4gem%C3%BChle.svg/220px-R%C3%B6mische_S%C3%A4gem%C3%BChle.svg.png)
- By at least the 3rd century: Crystallized sugar in India.[295]
- Early 3rd century: Woodblock printing is invented in Han dynasty China at sometime before 220 AD. This made China become the world's first print culture.[296]
- Late 3rd century – Early 4th century: Water turbine in the Roman Empire in modern-day Tunisia.[297][298][299]
4th century
[edit]- 280 – 550: Chaturanga, a precursor of Chess was invented in India during the Gupta Empire.[300][301][302]
- 4th century: Roman Dichroic glass, which displays one of two different colors depending on lighting conditions.
- 4th century: Mariner's compass in Tamil Southern India: the first mention of the use of a compass for navigational purposes is found in Tamil nautical texts as the macchayantra.[303][304] However, the theoretical notion of magnets pointing North predates the device by several centuries.
- 4th century: Simple suspension bridge, independently invented in Pre-Columbian South America, and the Hindu Kush range, of present-day Afghanistan and Pakistan. With Han dynasty travelers noting bridges being constructed from 3 or more vines or 3 ropes.[305] Later bridges constructed utilizing cables of iron chains appeared in Tibet.[306][307]
- 4th century: Fishing reel in Ancient China: In literary records, the earliest evidence of the fishing reel comes from a 4th-century AD[308] work entitled Lives of Famous Immortals.[309]
- 347: Oil Wells and Borehole drilling in China. Such wells could reach depths of up to 240 m (790 ft).[310]
- 4th century – 5th century: Paddle wheel boat (in De rebus bellicis) in Roman Empire[311]
5th century
[edit]- 400: The construction of the Iron pillar of Delhi in Mathura by the Gupta Empire shows the development of rust-resistant ferrous metallurgy in Ancient India,[312][313] although original texts do not survive to detail the specific processes invented in this period.
- 5th century: The horse collar as a fully developed collar harness is developed in Northern and Southern dynasties China during the 5th century AD.[314] The earliest depiction of it is a Dunhuang cave mural from the Chinese Northern Wei dynasty, the painting dated to 477–499.[315]
- 5th century – 6th century: Pointed arch bridge (Karamagara Bridge) in Cappadocia, Eastern Roman Empire[316][317]
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Nepali_charka_in_action.jpg/220px-Nepali_charka_in_action.jpg)
6th century
[edit]- By the 6th century: Incense clock in China.[318][319]
- After 500: Charkha (spinning wheel/cotton gin) invented in India (probably during the Vakataka dynasty of Maharashtra, India), between 500 and 1000 A.D.[320]
- 563: Pendentive dome (Hagia Sophia) in Constantinople, Eastern Roman Empire[321]
- 577: Sulfur matches exist in China.
- 589: Toilet paper in Sui dynasty China, first mentioned by the official Yan Zhitui (531–591), with full evidence of continual use in subsequent dynasties.[322][323]
7th century
[edit]- 619: Toothbrush in China during the Tang dynasty[324]
- 672: Greek fire in Constantinople, Byzantine Empire: Greek fire, an incendiary weapon likely based on petroleum or naphtha, is invented by Kallinikos, a Lebanese Greek refugee from Baalbek, as described by Theophanes.[325] However, the historicity and exact chronology of this account is dubious,[326] and it could be that Kallinikos merely introduced an improved version of an established weapon.[327]
- 7th century: Banknote in Tang dynasty China: The banknote is first developed in China during the Tang and Song dynasties, starting in the 7th century. Its roots are in merchant receipts of deposit during the Tang dynasty (618–907), as merchants and wholesalers desire to avoid the heavy bulk of copper coinage in large commercial transactions.[328][329][330]
- 7th century: Porcelain in Tang dynasty China: True porcelain is manufactured in northern China from roughly the beginning of the Tang dynasty in the 7th century, while true porcelain was not manufactured in southern China until about 300 years later, during the early 10th century.[331]
8th century
[edit]9th century
[edit]![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/M%C5%8Dko_Sh%C5%ABrai_Ekotoba.jpg/220px-M%C5%8Dko_Sh%C5%ABrai_Ekotoba.jpg)
- 9th century: Gunpowder in Tang dynasty China: Gunpowder is, according to prevailing academic consensus, discovered in the 9th century by Chinese alchemists searching for an elixir of immortality.[332] Evidence of gunpowder's first use in China comes from the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period (618–907).[333] The earliest known recorded recipes for gunpowder are written by Zeng Gongliang, Ding Du, and Yang Weide in the Wujing Zongyao, a military manuscript compiled in 1044 during the Song dynasty (960–1279).[334][335][336]
- 9th century: Playing card in Tang dynasty China[337][338][339][340][341]
10th century
[edit]- 10th century: Fire lance in Song dynasty China, developed in the 10th century with a tube of first bamboo and later on metal that shot a weak gunpowder blast of flame and shrapnel, its earliest depiction is a painting found at Dunhuang.[342] Fire lance is the earliest firearm in the world and one of the earliest gunpowder weapons.[343][344]
- 10th century: Fireworks in Song dynasty China: Fireworks first appear in China during the Song dynasty (960–1279), in the early age of gunpowder. Fireworks could be purchased from market vendors; these were made of sticks of bamboo packed with gunpowder.[345]
- 974: Fountain pen: invented at the request of al-Mu'izz li-Din Allah in Arab Egypt.[346]
11th century
[edit]- 11th century: Early versions of the Bessemer process are developed in China.
- 11th century: Endless power-transmitting chain drive by Su Song for the development an astronomical clock (the Cosmic Engine)[347]
- 11th century: Calico was developed in Calicut, India.[348]
- 1088: Movable type in Song dynasty China: The first record of a movable type system is in the Dream Pool Essays, which attributes the invention of the movable type to Bi Sheng.[349][350][351][352]
12th century
[edit]13th century
[edit]- 13th century: Rocket for military and recreational uses date back to at least 13th-century China.[353]
- 13th century: The earliest form of mechanical escapement, the verge escapement in Europe.[354]
- 13th century: Buttons (combined with buttonholes) as a functional fastening for closing clothes appear first in Germany.[355]
- 13th century: Explosive bomb in Jin dynasty Manchuria: Explosive bombs are used in 1221 by the Jin dynasty against a Song dynasty city.[356] The first accounts of bombs made of cast iron shells packed with explosive gunpowder are documented in the 13th century in China and are called "thunder-crash bombs",[357] coined during a Jin dynasty naval battle in 1231.[358]
- 13th century: Hand cannon in Yuan dynasty China: The earliest hand cannon dates to the 13th century based on archaeological evidence from a Heilongjiang excavation. There is also written evidence in the Yuanshi (1370) on Li Tang, an ethnic Jurchen commander under the Yuan dynasty who in 1288 suppresses the rebellion of the Christian prince Nayan with his "gun-soldiers" or chongzu, this being the earliest known event where this phrase is used.[359]
- 13th century: Earliest documented snow goggles, a type of sunglasses, made of flattened walrus or caribou ivory are used by the Inuit peoples in the arctic regions of North America.[360][361] In China, the first sunglasses consisting of flat panes of smoky quartz are documented.[362][363]
- 13th century - 14th century: Worm gear cotton gin in India.[364]
- 1277: Land mine in Song dynasty China: Textual evidence suggests that the first use of a land mine in history is by a Song dynasty brigadier general known as Lou Qianxia, who uses an 'enormous bomb' (huo pao) to kill Mongol soldiers invading Guangxi in 1277.[365]
- 1286: Eyeglasses in Italy[366]
14th century
[edit]- Early 14th century – Mid 14th century: Multistage rocket in Ming dynasty China described in Huolongjing by Jiao Yu.
- By at least 1326: Cannon in Ming dynasty China[367]
- 14th century: Painting Canvas was first used in Italy.[368]
- 14th century: Jacob's staff described by Levi ben Gerson
- 14th century: Naval mine in Ming dynasty China: Mentioned in the Huolongjing military manuscript written by Jiao Yu (fl. 14th to early 15th century) and Liu Bowen (1311–1375), describing naval mines used at sea or on rivers and lakes, made of wrought iron and enclosed in an ox bladder. A later model is documented in Song Yingxing's encyclopedia written in 1637.[369]
- 14th century: Bidriware in the Bahmani Sultanate in India.[370]
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Handtiegelpresse_von_1811.jpg/170px-Handtiegelpresse_von_1811.jpg)
15th century
[edit]- Early 15th century: Coil spring in Europe[372]
- 15th century: Mainspring in Europe[372]
- 15th century: Rifle in Europe
- 1420s: Brace in Flandres, Holy Roman Empire[373]
- 1439: Printing press in Mainz, Germany: The printing press is invented in the Holy Roman Empire by Johannes Gutenberg before 1440, based on existing screw presses. The first confirmed record of a press appeared in a 1439 lawsuit against Gutenberg.[374]
- Mid 15th century: The Arquebus (also spelled Harquebus) is invented, possibly in Spain.[375][376]
- 1480s: Mariner's astrolabe in Portuguese circumnavigation of Africa[377]
Early modern era
[edit]16th century
[edit]- 16th century: Chintz or printed clothing in Golconda, India[378]
- 16th century: Hookah by Irfan Shaikh, at the court of the Mughal emperor Akbar I (1542–1605).
- 1560: Floating Dry Dock in Venice, Venetian Republic[381]
- 1569: Mercator Projection map created by Gerardus Mercator
- 1589: Stocking frame: Invented by William Lee.[382]
- 1594: Backstaff: Invented by Captain John Davis.
- By at least 1597: Revolver: Invented by Hans Stopler.
17th century
[edit]![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Relation_Aller_Fuernemmen_und_gedenckwuerdigen_Historien_%281609%29.jpg/170px-Relation_Aller_Fuernemmen_und_gedenckwuerdigen_Historien_%281609%29.jpg)
- 1605: Newspaper (Relation): Johann Carolus in Strassburg (see also List of the oldest newspapers)[383][384]
- 1608: Telescope: Patent applied for by Hans Lippershey. Actual inventor unknown since it seemed to already be a common item being offered by the spectacle makers in the Netherlands with Jacob Metius also applying for patent and the son of Zacharias Janssen making a claim 47 years later that his father invented it.
- 1620: Compound microscopes, which combine an objective lens with an eyepiece to view a real image, first appear in Europe. Apparently derived from the telescope, actual inventor unknown, variously attributed to Zacharias Janssen (his son claiming it was invented in 1590), Cornelis Drebbel, and Galileo Galilei.[385]
- 1630: Slide rule: invented by William Oughtred[386][387]
- 1642: Mechanical calculator. The Pascaline is built by Blaise Pascal.[388]
- 1643: Barometer: invented by Evangelista Torricelli, or possibly up to three years earlier by Gasparo Berti.[389]
- 1650: Vacuum pump: Invented by Otto von Guericke.[390]
- 1656: Pendulum clock: Invented by Christiaan Huygens. It was first conceptualized in 1637 by Galileo Galilei but he was unable to create a working model.[391]
- 1663: Friction machine: Invented by Otto von Guericke.
- 1668: First functional reflecting telescope constructed by Isaac Newton.[392]
- 1679: Pressure-cooker: Invented by Denis Papin.[393]
- 1680: Christiaan Huygens provides the first known description of a piston engine.[394]
- 1698: Thomas Savery developes a steam-powered water pump: for draining mines[395]
18th century
[edit]1700s
[edit]- 1709: Bartolomeo Cristofori crafts the first piano.
- 1709: Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit invents the alcohol thermometer.
1710s
[edit]- 1712: Thomas Newcomen builds the first commercial steam engine to pump water out of mines.[396] Newcomen's engine, unlike Thomas Savery's, uses a piston.
1730s
[edit]- 1730: Thomas Godfrey and John Hadley independently develop the octant
- 1733: John Kay enables one person to operate a loom with the flying shuttle[397]
- 1738: Lewis Paul and John Wyatt invent the first mechanized cotton spinning machine.
1740s
[edit]- 1742: Benjamin Franklin invents the Franklin stove.
- 1745: Musschenbroek and Kleist independently develop the Leyden jar, an early form of capacitor.
- 1746: John Roebuck invents the lead chamber process.
1750s
[edit]- 1752: Benjamin Franklin invents the lightning rod.
- 1755: William Cullen invents the first artificial refrigeration machine.
1760s
[edit]- 1760: John Joseph Merlin invents the first Roller skates.[398]
- 1764: James Hargreaves invents the spinning jenny.
- 1765: James Watt invents the improved steam engine utilizing a separate condenser.
- 1767: Joseph Priestley invents a method for the production of carbonated water.
- 1769: Nicolas-Joseph Cugnot invents the first steam-powered vehicle capable of carrying passengers, an early car.
1770s
[edit]- 1770: Richard Salter invents the earliest known design for a weighing scale.
- 1774: John Wilkinson invents his boring machine, considered by some to be the first machine tool.
- 1775: Jesse Ramsden invents the modern screw-cutting lathe.
- 1776: John Wilkinson invents a mechanical air compressor that would become the prototype for all later mechanical compressors.
- 1778: Robert Barron invents the first lever tumbler lock.
1780s
[edit]- 1780: Hyder Ali of Mysore, India develops the first metal-cylinder rockets.[399]
- 1783: Claude de Jouffroy builds the first steamboat.
- 1783: Joseph-Ralf and Jacques-Étienne Montgolfier build the first manned hot air balloon.
- 1783: Louis-Sébastien Lenormand invents and uses the first modern parachute.
- 1785: Martinus van Marum is the first to use the electrolysis technique.
- 1786: Andrew Meikle invents the threshing machine.
- 1789: Edmund Cartwright invents the power loom.
1790s
[edit]- 1790: Thomas Saint invents the sewing machine.
- 1792: Claude Chappe invents the modern semaphore telegraph.
- 1793: Eli Whitney invents the modern cotton gin.
- 1795: Joseph Bramah invents the hydraulic press.
- 1796: Alois Senefelder invents the lithography printing technique.[400]
- 1797: Samuel Bentham invents plywood.
- 1799: George Medhurst invents the first motorized air compressor.
- 1799: The first paper machine is invented by Louis-Nicolas Robert.
Late modern period
[edit]19th century
[edit]1800s
[edit]- 1800: Alessandro Volta invents the voltaic pile, an early form of battery in Italy, based on previous works by Luigi Galvani.
- 1802: Humphry Davy invents the arc lamp (exact date unclear; not practical as a light source until the invention of efficient electric generators).[401]
- 1804: Friedrich Sertürner discovers morphine as the first active alkaloid extracted from the opium poppy plant.[402]
- 1804: Joseph Marie Jacquard develops his automated Jacquard loom.[403]
- 1804: Richard Trevithick invents the steam locomotive.[404]
- 1804: Hanaoka Seishū creates tsūsensan, the first modern general anesthetic.[405]
- 1807: Nicéphore Niépce invents an early internal combustion engine capable of doing useful work.
- 1807: François Isaac de Rivaz designs the first automobile powered by an internal combustion engine fuelled by hydrogen.
- 1807: Robert Fulton expands water transportation and trade with the workable steamboat.
1810s
[edit]![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/KarlVonDrais.jpg/220px-KarlVonDrais.jpg)
- 1810: Nicolas Appert invents the canning process for food.[406]
- 1810: Abraham-Louis Breguet creates the first wristwatch.[407]
- 1811: Friedrich Koenig invents the first powered printing press, which was also the first to use a cylinder.
- 1812: William Reid Clanny pioneered the invention of the safety lamp which he improved in later years. Safety lamps based on Clanny's improved design were used until the adoption of electric lamps.
- 1814: James Fox invents the modern planing machine, though Matthew Murray of Leeds and Richard Roberts of Manchester have also been credited at times with its invention.
- 1816: René Laennec invents the first Stethoscope.[408]
- 1816: Francis Ronalds builds the first working electric telegraph using electrostatic means.
- 1816: Robert Stirling invents the Stirling engine.[409]
- 1817: Baron Karl von Drais invents the dandy horse, an early velocipede and precursor to the modern bicycle.
- 1818: Marc Isambard Brunel invents the tunnelling shield.
1820s
[edit]- 1822: Thomas Blanchard invents the pattern-tracing lathe (actually more like a shaper). The lathe can copy symmetrical shapes and is used for making gun stocks, and later, ax handles.[410][411]
- 1822: Nicéphore Niépce invents Heliography, the first photographic process.
- 1822: Charles Babbage, considered the "father of the computer",[412] begins building the first programmable mechanical computer.
- 1823: Johann Wolfgang Döbereiner invents the first lighter.
- 1824: Johann Nikolaus von Dreyse invents the bolt-action rifle.[413]
- 1824: William Sturgeon invents the electromagnet.[414][415]
- 1826: John Walker invents the friction match.[416]
- 1826: James Sharp invents and goes on to manufacture the first practical gas stove.
- 1828: James Beaumont Neilson develops the hot blast process.
- 1828: Patrick Bell invents the reaping machine.
- 1828: Hungarian physicist Ányos Jedlik invents the first commutated rotary electromechanical machine with electromagnets.
- 1829: Louis Braille invents the Braille reading system for the blind.[417]
- 1829: William Mann invents the compound air compressor.
- 1829: Henry Robinson Palmer is awarded a patent for corrugated galvanised iron.
1830s
[edit]- 1830: Edwin Budding invents the lawn mower.
- 1831: Michael Faraday invents a method of electromagnetic induction. It would be independently invented by Joseph Henry the following year.
- 1834: Moritz von Jacobi invents the first practical electric motor.
- 1835: Joseph Henry invents the electromechanical relay.
- 1837: Samuel Morse invents Morse code.
- 1838: Moritz von Jacobi invents electrotyping.
- 1839: William Otis invents the steam shovel.
- 1839: James Nasmyth invents the steam hammer.
- 1839: Edmond Becquerel invents a method for the photovoltaic effect, effectively producing the first solar cell.
- 1839: Charles Goodyear invents vulcanized rubber.[418]
- 1839: Louis Daguerre invents daguerreotype photography.[419]
1840s
[edit]- 1840: John Herschel invents the blueprint.[420]
- 1841: Alexander Bain devises a printing telegraph.[421]
- 1842: William Robert Grove invents the first fuel cell.
- 1842: John Bennet Lawes invents superphosphate, the first man-made fertilizer.
- 1844: Friedrich Gottlob Keller and, independently, Charles Fenerty come up with the wood pulp method of paper production.
- 1844: Francis Rynd invents the hypodermic needle.
- 1845: Isaac Charles Johnson invents modern Portland cement.
- 1846: Henri-Joseph Maus invents the tunnel boring machine.
- 1847: Ascanio Sobrero invents Nitroglycerin, the first explosive made that was stronger than black powder.
- 1848: Jonathan J. Couch invents the pneumatic drill.
- 1848: Linus Yale Sr. invents the first modern pin tumbler lock.
- 1849: Walter Hunt invents the first repeating rifle to use metallic cartridges (of his own design) and a spring-fed magazine.
- 1849: James B. Francis invents the Francis turbine.
- 1849: Walter Hunt invents the Safety pin.[422]
1850s
[edit]- 1850: William Armstrong invents the hydraulic accumulator.
- 1851: George Jennings offers the first public flush toilets, accessible for a penny per visit, and in 1852 receives a UK patent for the single piece, free standing, earthenware, trap plumed, flushing, water-closet.[423]
- 1852: Robert Bunsen is the first to use a chemical vapor deposition technique.
- 1852: Elisha Otis invents the safety brake elevator.[424]
- 1852: Henri Giffard becomes the first person to make a manned, controlled and powered flight using a dirigible.
- 1853: François Coignet invents reinforced concrete.
- 1855: James Clerk Maxwell invents the first practical method for color photography, whether chemical or electronic.
- 1855:Henry Bessemer patents the Bessemer process for making steel, with improvements made by others over the following years.
- 1856: Alexander Parkes invents parkesine, also known as celluloid, the first man-made plastic.
- 1856: James Harrison produces the world's first practical ice making machine and refrigerator using the principle of vapour compression in Geelong, Australia.[425]
- 1856: William Henry Perkin invents mauveine, the first synthetic dye.
- 1857: Heinrich Geissler invents the Geissler tube.
- 1857: The phonautograph, the earliest known device for recording sound, is patented and invented by Frenchman Édouard-Léon Scott de Martinville.
- 1859: Gaston Planté invents the lead acid battery, the first rechargeable battery.
1860s
[edit]- 1860: Joseph Swan produces carbon fibers.[426]
- 1864: Louis Pasteur invents the pasteurization process.
- 1865: Carl Wilhelm Siemens and Pierre-Émile Martin invented the Siemens-Martin process for making steel.
- 1867: Alfred Nobel invents dynamite, the first safely manageable explosive stronger than black powder.
- 1867: Lucien B. Smith invents barbed wire, which Joseph F. Glidden will modify in 1874, leading to the taming of the West and the end of the cowboys.
1870s
[edit]- 1872: Polyvinyl chloride, more commonly known as vinyl, is synthesized by German chemist Eugen Baumann
- 1872: J.E.T. Woods and J. Clark invented stainless steel. Harry Brearley was the first to commercialize it.[427]
- 1873: Frederick Ransome invents the rotary kiln.
- 1873: William Crookes, a chemist, invents the Crookes radiometer as the by-product of some chemical research.
- 1873: Zénobe Gramme invents the first commercial electrical generator, the Gramme machine.
- 1874: Gustave Trouvé invents the first metal detector.
- 1875: Fyodor Pirotsky invents the first electric tram near Saint Petersburg, Russia.
- 1876: Nicolaus August Otto invents the four-stroke cycle.
- 1876: Alexander Graham Bell has a patent granted for the telephone. However, other inventors before Bell had worked on the development of the telephone and the invention had several pioneers.[428]
- 1877: Thomas Edison invents the first working phonograph.[429]
- 1878: Henry Fleuss is granted a patent for the first practical rebreather.[430]
- 1878: Lester Allan Pelton invents the Pelton wheel.
- 1879: Joseph Swan and Thomas Edison both patent a functional incandescent light bulb. Some two dozen inventors had experimented with electric incandescent lighting over the first three-quarters of the 19th century but never came up with a practical design.[431] Swan's, which he had been working on since the 1860s, had a low resistance so was only suited for small installations. Edison designed a high-resistance bulb as part of a large-scale commercial electric lighting utility.[432][433][434]
1880s
[edit]- 1881: Nikolay Benardos presents carbon arc welding, the first practical arc welding method.[435]
- 1884: Hiram Maxim invents the recoil-operated Maxim gun, ushering in the age of semi- and fully automatic firearms.
- 1884: Paul Vieille invents Poudre B, the first smokeless powder for firearms.
- 1884: Sir Charles Parsons invents the modern steam turbine.
- 1884: Hungarian engineers Károly Zipernowsky, Ottó Bláthy and Miksa Déri invent the closed core high efficiency transformer and the AC parallel power distribution.
- 1885: John Kemp Starley invents the modern safety bicycle.[436][437]
- 1886: Carl Gassner invents the zinc–carbon battery, the first dry cell battery, making portable electronics practical.
- 1886: Charles Martin Hall and independently Paul Héroult invent the Hall–Héroult process for economically producing aluminum in 1886.
- 1886: Karl Benz invents the first petrol or gasoline powered auto-mobile (car).[438]
- 1887: Carl Josef Bayer invents the Bayer process for the production of alumina.
- 1887: James Blyth invents the first wind turbine used for generating electricity.
- 1887: John Stewart MacArthur, working in collaboration with brothers Dr. Robert and Dr. William Forrest, develops the process of gold cyanidation.
- 1888: John J. Loud invents the ballpoint pen.[439]
- 1888: Thomas Edison and William Kennedy Dickson invent the Kinetoscope.[440]
- 1888: Heinrich Hertz publishes a conclusive proof of James Clerk Maxwell's electromagnetic theory in experiments that also demonstrate the existence of radio waves. The effects of electromagnetic waves had been observed by many people before this but no usable theory explaining them existed until Maxwell.
- 1888: The first practical pneumatic tire was made by Scotsman John Boyd Dunlop, the patent was from 1847 by Robert William Thomson
1890s
[edit]- 1890s: Frédéric Swarts invents the first chlorofluorocarbons to be applied as refrigerant.[441]
- 1890: Robert Gair would invent the pre-cut cardboard box.[442]
- 1891: Whitcomb Judson invents the zipper.
- 1892: Léon Bouly invents the cinematograph.
- 1892: Thomas Ahearn invents the electric oven.[443]
- 1893: Rudolf Diesel invents the diesel engine (although Herbert Akroyd Stuart had experimented with compression ignition before Diesel).
- 1893: William Stewart Halsted, invents the rubber glove for his wife Caroline Hampton as he noticed her hands were affected on the daily surgeries she had performed and in order to prevent medical staff from developing dermatitis from surgical chemicals.[444][445][446] The first modern disposable glove was invented by Ansell Rubber Co. Pty. Ltd. in 1965.[447][448][449]
- 1895: Guglielmo Marconi invents a system of wireless communication using radio waves.
- 1895: Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen invented the first radiograph (X-ray).
- 1897: Surgical masks made of cloth were developed in Europe by physicians Jan Mikulicz-Radecki at the University of Breslau and Paul Berger in Paris, as a result of increasing awareness of germ theory and the importance of antiseptic procedures in medicine.[450]
- 1898: Hans von Pechmann synthesizes polyethylene, now the most common plastic in the world.[451]
- 1899: Waldemar Jungner invents the rechargeable nickel-cadmium battery (NiCd) as well as the nickel-iron electric storage battery (NiFe) and the rechargeable alkaline silver-cadmium battery (AgCd)
20th century
[edit]1900s
[edit]- 1900: The first Zeppelin is designed by Theodor Kober.
- 1901: The first motorized cleaner using suction, a powered "vacuum cleaner", is patented independently by Hubert Cecil Booth and David T. Kenney.[452]
- 1903: The first successful gas turbine is invented by Ægidius Elling.
- 1903: Édouard Bénédictus invents laminated glass.
- 1903: First sustained and controlled heavier-than-air powered flight achieved by an airplane flown at Kitty Hawk, North Carolina by Orville and Wilbur Wright. See Claims to the first powered flight.
- 1904: The Fleming valve, the first vacuum tube and diode, is invented by John Ambrose Fleming.
- 1907: The first free flight of a rotary-wing aircraft is carried out by Paul Cornu.
- 1907: Leo Baekeland invents bakelite, the first plastic made from synthetic components.
- 1907: The tuyères thermopropulsives[453] after 1945 (Maurice Roy (fr)) known as the statoreacteur[453][454] a combustion subsonique (the ramjet)[455] – R. Lorin[456][457][458]
- 1908: Cellophane is invented by Jacques E. Brandenberger.
- 1909: Fritz Haber invents the Haber process.
- 1909: The first instantaneous transmission of images, or television broadcast, is carried out by Georges Rignoux and A. Fournier.
1910s
[edit]![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/BERy_Articulated_number_2_side_view%2C_1913.jpg/220px-BERy_Articulated_number_2_side_view%2C_1913.jpg)
- 1911: The cloud chamber, the first particle detector, is invented by Charles Thomson Rees Wilson.
- 1912: The first commercial slot cars or more accurately model electric racing cars operating under constant power were made by Lionel (USA) and appeared in their catalogues in 1912.
- 1912: The first use of articulated trams by Boston Elevated Railway.
- 1913: The Bergius process is developed by Friedrich Bergius.
- 1913: The Kaplan turbine is invented by Viktor Kaplan.
- 1915: Harry Brearley invents a process to create Martensitic stainless steel, initially labelled Rustless Steel, later marketed as Staybrite, and AISI Type 420.[459]
- 1915: The first operational military tanks are designed in Great Britain and France. They are used in battle from 1916 and 1917 respectively. The designers in Great Britain are Walter Wilson and William Tritton and in France, Eugène Brillié. (Although it is known that vehicles incorporating at least some of the features of the tank were designed in a number of countries from 1903 onward, none reached a practical form.)
- 1916: The Czochralski process, widely used for the production of single crystal silicon, is invented by Jan Czochralski.
- 1917: The crystal oscillator is invented by Alexander M. Nicholson using a crystal of Rochelle Salt although his priority was disputed by Walter Guyton Cady.
1920s
[edit]- 1925: The Fischer–Tropsch process is developed by Franz Fischer and Hans Tropsch at the Kaiser-Wilhelm-Institut für Kohlenforschung.
- 1926: The Yagi-Uda Antenna or simply Yagi Antenna is invented by Shintaro Uda of Tohoku Imperial University, assisted by his colleague Hidetsugu Yagi. The Yagi Antenna was widely used during World War II. After the war they saw extensive development as home television antennas.
- 1926: Robert H. Goddard launches the first liquid fueled rocket.
- 1926: Harry Ferguson, patents the Three-point hitch equipment linkage system for tractors.[460]
- 1926: John Logie Baird demonstrates the world's first live working television system.[461][462][463]
- 1927: The quartz clock is invented by Warren Marrison and J.W. Horton at Bell Telephone Laboratories.[464]
- 1928: Penicillin is first observed to exude antibiotic substances by Nobel laureate Alexander Fleming. Development of medicinal penicillin is attributed to a team of medics and scientists including Howard Walter Florey, Ernst Chain and Norman Heatley.
- 1928: Frank Whittle formally submitted his ideas for a turbo-jet engine. In October 1929, he developed his ideas further.[465] On 16 January 1930, Whittle submitted his first patent (granted in 1932).[466]
- 1928: Philo Farnsworth demonstrates the first practical electronic television to the press.
- 1929: The ball screw is invented by Rudolph G. Boehm.
1930s
[edit]- 1930: The Supersonic combusting ramjet — Frank Whittle.[citation needed]
- 1930: The Phase-contrast microscopy is invented by Frits Zernike.
- 1931: The electron microscope is invented by Ernst Ruska.
- 1933: FM radio is patented by inventor Edwin H. Armstrong.
- 1933: Harry C. Jennings Sr. and his disabled friend Herbert Everest, both mechanical engineers, invented the first lightweight, steel, folding, portable wheelchair with their "X-brace" design.[467][468]
- 1935: Nylon, the first fully synthetic fiber is produced by Wallace Carothers while working at DuPont.[469]
- 1938: Z1, built by Konrad Zuse, is the first freely programmable computer in the world.
- 1938: Nuclear fission discovered in experiment by chemists Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann and physicists Lise Meitner and Otto Robert Frisch. The German nuclear energy project was based on this research. The Tube Alloys project and, subsequently, the Manhattan Project and the Soviet atomic bomb project were influenced by this research.
- 1939: G. S. Yunyev or Naum Gurvich invented the electric current defibrillator
1940-1944
[edit]- 1940: Pu-239 isotope (isotope of plutonium)[470][471] a form of matter existing with the capacity for use as a destructive element[472] (because the isotope has an exponentially increasing[470] spontaneous[473] fissile decay[474]) within nuclear devices — Glenn Seaborg.[471]
- 1940: John Randall and Harry Boot would develop the high power, microwave generating, cavity magnetron, later applied to commercial Radar and Microwave oven appliances.[475]
- 1941: Polyester is invented by John Rex Whinfield and James Dickson.[476]
- 1942: The V-2 rocket, the world's first long range ballistic missile, developed by engineer Wernher von Braun.
- 1944: The non-infectious viral vaccine is perfected by Dr. Jonas Salk and Thomas Francis.[477]
Contemporary history
[edit]1945-1950
[edit]- 1945: The atomic bomb is developed by the Manhattan Project and swiftly used in August 1945 in the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, effectively ending World War II.
- 1945: Percy Spencer, while employed at Raytheon, would patent a magnetron based microwave oven.[478]
- 1945: Willard Libby began his work on radiocarbon dating. He published his paper in 1946,[479][480] a second paper in Science in 1947.[479][481] Libby and James Arnold succeeded with the radiocarbon dating theory after results were published in Science in December 1949.[482][483]
- 1946: James Martin invents the ejector seat, inspired by the death of his friend and test pilot Captain Valentine Baker in an aeroplane crash in 1942.
- 1947: Holography is invented by Dennis Gabor.
- 1947: Floyd Farris and J.B. Clark (Stanolind Oil and Gas Corporation) invents hydraulic fracturing technology.[484]
- 1947: The first transistor, a bipolar point-contact transistor, is invented by John Bardeen and Walter Brattain under the supervision of William Shockley at Bell Labs.
- 1948: The first atomic clock is developed at the National Bureau of Standards.
- 1948: Basic oxygen steelmaking is developed by Robert Durrer. The vast majority of steel manufactured in the world is produced using the basic oxygen furnace; in 2000, it accounted for 60% of global steel output.[485]
1950s
[edit]- 1950: Bertie the Brain, debatably the first video game, is displayed to the public at the Canadian National Exhibition.
- 1950: The Toroidal chamber with axial magnetic fields (the Tokamak) is developed by Igor E. Tamm and Andrei D. Sakharov.[486]
- 1952: The float glass process is developed by Alastair Pilkington.[487]
- 1952: The first thermonuclear weapon is developed.
- 1953: The first video tape recorder, a helical scan recorder, is invented by Norikazu Sawazaki.
- 1954: Invention of the solar battery by Bell Telephone scientists, Calvin Souther Fuller, Daryl Chapin and Gerald Pearson capturing the Sun's power. First practical means of collecting energy from the Sun and turning it into a current of electricity.
- 1955: The hovercraft is patented by Christopher Cockerell.
- 1955: The intermodal container is developed by Malcom McLean.
- 1956: The hard disk drive is invented by IBM.[488]
- 1956: The Logic Theorist computer program, the first "artificial intelligence program", was written and invented by Allen Newell, Herbert A. Simon, and Cliff Shaw.[489]
- 1957: The laser and optical amplifier are invented and named by Gordon Gould and Charles Townes. The laser and optical amplifier are foundational to powering the Internet.[490]
- 1957: The first personal computer used by one person and controlled by a keyboard, the IBM 610, is invented by IBM.
- 1957: The first artificial satellite, Sputnik 1, is launched.
- 1958 – 1959: The integrated circuit is independently invented by Jack Kilby and Robert Noyce.
- 1959: The MOSFET (MOS transistor) is invented by the Egyptian Mohamed Atalla and the Korean Dawon Kahng at Bell Labs. It is used in almost all modern electronic products. It was smaller, faster, more reliable and cheaper to manufacture than earlier bipolar transistors, leading to a revolution in computers, controls and communication.[491][492][493]
1960s
[edit]![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/0_series_Yurakucho_19670505.jpg/220px-0_series_Yurakucho_19670505.jpg)
- 1960: The first functioning laser is invented by Theodore Maiman.
- 1963: The first electronic cigarette is created by Herbert A. Gilbert. Hon Lik is often credited with its invention as he developed the modern electronic cigarette and was the first to commercialize it.
- 1964: Shinkansen, the first high-speed rail commercial passenger service.
- 1965: Kevlar is invented by Stephanie Kwolek at DuPont.
- 1969: The NPL network followed by the ARPANET implement packet switching for data communication,[494][495] drawing on the concepts and designs of Donald Davies,[496][497][498] and Paul Baran.[499]
1970s
[edit]- 1970s: Public-key cryptography is invented and developed by James H. Ellis, Clifford Cocks, Malcolm J. Williamson, Whitfield Diffie, Martin Hellman, Ralph Merkle, Ron Rivest, Adi Shamir, Leonard Adleman, et al.
- 1970: The pocket calculator is invented.
- 1971: The first single-chip microprocessor, the Intel 4004, is invented. Its development was led by Federico Faggin, using his silicon-gate MOS technology. This led to the personal computer (PC) revolution.[500]
- 1971: The first space station, Salyut 1, is launched.
- 1971: IBM developed and released the world's first floppy disk and disk drive.[501]
- 1972: The first video game console, used primarily for playing video games on a TV, is the Magnavox Odyssey.[502]
- 1973: The first fiber optic communication systems were developed by Optelecom.[503]
- 1973: The first commercial graphical user interface is introduced in 1973 on the Xerox Alto. The modern GUI is later popularized by the Xerox Star and Apple Lisa.
- 1973: The first capacitive touchscreen is developed at CERN.
- 1974: The Transmission Control Program is proposed by Vinton Cerf and Robert E. Kahn, building on the work of Louis Pouzin and other Internet pioneers, creating the basis for the modern Internet.[504][505]
- 1974: The lithium-ion battery is invented by M. Stanley Whittingham, and further developed in the 1980s and 1990s by John B. Goodenough, Rachid Yazami and Akira Yoshino. It has impacted modern consumer electronics and electric vehicles.[506]
- 1974: The Rubik's cube is invented by Ernő Rubik which went on the be the best selling puzzle ever.[507]
- 1977: Dr Walter Gilbert and Frederick Sanger invented a new DNA sequencing method for which they won the Nobel Prize.[508]
- 1977: The first self-driving car that did not rely upon rails or wires under the road is designed by the Tsukuba Mechanical Engineering Laboratory.[509]
- 1978: The Global Positioning System (GPS) enters service. While not the first Satellite navigation system, it is the first to enter widespread civilian use.
- 1979: The first handheld game console with interchangeable game cartridges, the Microvision is released.
- 1979: Public dialup information, messaging and e-commerce services, were pioneered through CompuServe and RadioShack's MicroNET, and the UK's Post Office Telecommunications Prestel services.[510][511]
1980s
[edit]- 1980: Flash memory (both NOR and NAND types) is invented by Fujio Masuoka while working for Toshiba. It is formally introduced to the public in 1984.
- 1981: The first reusable spacecraft, the Space Shuttle undergoes test flights ahead of full operation in 1982.
- 1981: Kane Kramer develops the credit card sized, IXI digital media player.[512]
- 1982: A CD-ROM contains data accessible to, but not writable by, a computer for data storage and music playback. The 1985 Yellow Book standard developed by Sony and Philips adapted the format to hold any form of binary data.[513]
- 1982: Direct to home satellite television transmission, with the launch of Sky One service.[514]
- 1982: The first laptop computer is launched, the 8/16-bit Epson HX-20.[515]
- 1983: Stereolithography is invented by Chuck Hull.[516]
- 1984: The first commercially available cell phone, the DynaTAC 8000X, is created by Motorola.
- 1984: DNA profiling is pioneered by Alec Jeffreys.[517][518]
- 1989: Karlheinz Brandenburg would publish the audio compression algorithms that would be standardised as the: MPEG-1, layer 3 (mp3), and later the MPEG-2, layer 7 Advanced Audio Compression (AAC).[519]
- 1989: The World Wide Web is invented by computer scientist Tim Berners-Lee.[520][521]
1990s
[edit]- 1990: The Neo Geo AES becomes the first video game system to launch that used Memory Cards.
- 1990: The first search engine invented was “Archie”, created by Alan Emtage a student at McGill University in Montreal.
- 1991: The first commercial flash-based solid-state drive is launched by SunDisk.[522]
- 1991: The first sim card is developed by Munich smart-card maker Giesecke & Devrient.
- 1993: IBM created the first mobile app with SIMON; it had 10 built-in apps from Email to Calendar.
- 1994: IBM Simon, the world's first smartphone, is developed by IBM.
- 1994: First generation of Bluetooth is developed by Ericsson Mobile. A form of data communication on short distances between electronic devices.
- 1994: A Tetris variant on the Hagenuk MT-2000 device becomes the first mobile game.
- 1995: DVD is an optical disc storage format, invented and developed by Philips, Sony, Toshiba, and Panasonic in 1995. DVDs offer higher storage capacity than compact discs while having the same dimensions.
- 1995: Match.com launches as the first dating site ever and is the number 1 most visited dating site in the US.
- 1995: Waiter.com launches as the first online food ordering service.
- 1996: Ciena deploys the first commercial wave division multiplexing system in partnership with Sprint. This created the massive capacity of the internet.[523]
- 1996: Mobile web was first commercially offered in Finland on the Nokia 9000 Communicator phone, and it was also the first phone with texting.
- 1996: Bolt and Six Degrees (1997) both become the first social media sites.
- 1997: The first weblog, a discussion or informational website, is created by Jorn Barger, later shortened to "blog" in 1999 by Peter Merholz.
- 1998: The first portable MP3 player is released by SaeHan Information Systems.
- 1999: The first digital video recorder (DVR), the TiVo, is launched by Xperi.
- 1999: NTT DoCoMo launches i-mode, the first integrated Online App store for mobile phones.
21st century
[edit]2000s
[edit]- 2000: Sony develops the first prototypes for the Blu-ray optical disc format. The first prototype player was released in 2004.
- 2000: First documented placement of Geocaching, an outdoor recreational activity, in which participants use a Global Positioning System (GPS) receiver or mobile device and other navigational techniques to hide and seek containers, took place on May 3, 2000, by Dave Ulmer of Beavercreek, Oregon.
- 2001: The Xbox Launches and is the first game console with internal storage
- 2004: First podcast, invented by Adam Curry and Dave Winer, is a program made available in digital format for download over the Internet and it usually features one or more recurring hosts engaged in a discussion about a particular topic or current event.[524][525][526]
- 2005: YouTube, the first popular video-streaming site, was founded
- 2007: Netflix debuted the first popular video-on-demand service
- 2007: Apple Inc. released the iPhone
- 2007: The Bank of Scotland develops the world's first banking app
- 2007: SoundCloud, the first on-demand service to focus on music is debuted
- 2007: First Kindle introduced by Amazon (company) founder and CEO Jeff Bezos, who instructed the company's employees to build the world's best e-reader before Amazon's competitors could. Amazon originally used the codename Fiona for the device. This hardware evolved from the original Kindle introduced in 2007 and the Kindle DX (with its larger 9.7" screen) introduced in 2009.[527]
- 2008: Satoshi Nakamoto develops the first blockchain.[528]
2010s
[edit]- 2010: The first solar sail based spacecraft, IKAROS.[529]
- 2010: The first quantum machine[530]
- 2010: The first synthetic organism, Mycoplasma laboratorium is created by the J. Craig Venter Institute.
- 2011: Twitch, launches as the first live-streaming service.
- 2011: HIV treatment as prevention (HPTN 052)[531]
- 2013: Cancer immunotherapy[532]
- 2015: CRISPR genome-editing method[533]
- 2017: The Nintendo Switch launches becoming the first handheld to TV hybrid.
- 2017: Google publishes a research paper "Attention Is All You Need" leading to the development into a new deep learning architecture known as the transformer.[534]
- 2018: Single-cell sequencing[535]
- 2019: IBM launches IBM Q System One, its first integrated quantum computing system for commercial use.
2020s
[edit]- 2020: The first MRNA vaccine to be approved by public health medicines regulators is co-developed by Pfizer and BioNTech for COVID-19.[536]
- 2022: Pfizer develops the world's first pill for COVID.
See also
[edit]- Accelerating change
- List of emerging technologies
- List of inventors
- List of years in science
- Outline of prehistoric technology
- Timeline of prehistory
- By type
- History of communication
- Timeline of agriculture and food technology
- Timeline of electrical and electronic engineering
- Timeline of transportation technology
- Timeline of heat engine technology
- Timeline of rocket and missile technology
- Timeline of motor and engine technology
- Timeline of steam power
- Timeline of temperature and pressure measurement technology
- Timeline of mathematics
- Timeline of computing
Notes
[edit]- ^ Dates for inventions are often controversial. Sometimes inventions are invented by several inventors around the same time, or may be invented in an impractical form many years before another inventor improves the invention into a more practical form. Where there is ambiguity, the date of the first known working version of the invention is used here.
- ^ Earthen pipes were later used in the Indus Valley c. 2700 BC for a city-scale urban drainage system,[124] and more durable copper drainage pipes appeared in Egypt, by the time of the construction of the Pyramid of Sahure at Abusir, c.2400 BCE.[125]
- ^ Shell, Terracotta, Copper, and Ivory rulers were in use by the Indus Valley civilisation in what today is Pakistan, and North West India, prior to 1500 BCE.[166]
- ^ A competing claim is from Lothal dockyard in India,[174][175][176][177][178] constructed at some point between 2400-2000 BC;[179] however, more precise dating does not exist.
- ^ The uncertainty in dating several Indian developments between 600 BC and 300 AD, due to the tradition that existed of editing existing documents (such as the Sushruta Samhita and Arthashastra) without specifically documenting the edit. Most such documents were canonized at the start of the Gupta empire (mid-3rd century AD).
- ^ A 10th century AD, Damascus steel blade, analysed under an electron microscope, contains nano-meter tubes in its metal alloy. Their presence has been suggested to be down to transition-metal impurities in the ores once used to produce Wootz Steel in South India.[217]
- ^ Although it is recorded that the Han dynasty (202 BC – AD 220) court eunuch Cai Lun (born c. 50–121 AD) invented the pulp papermaking process and established the use of new raw materials used in making paper, ancient padding and wrapping paper artifacts dating to the 2nd century BC have been found in China, the oldest example of pulp papermaking being a map from Fangmatan, Gansu.[266]
Footnotes
[edit]- ^ De Heinzelin, J; Clark, JD; White, T; Hart, W; Renne, P; Woldegabriel, G; Beyene, Y; Vrba, E (1999). "Environment and behavior of 2.5-million-year-old Bouri hominids". Science. 284 (5414): 625–9. Bibcode:1999Sci...284..625D. doi:10.1126/science.284.5414.625. PMID 10213682.
- ^ Toth, Nicholas; Schick, Kathy (2009), "African Origins", in Scarre, Chris (ed.), The Human Past: World Prehistory and the Development of Human Societies (2nd ed.), London: Thames and Hudson, pp. 67–68
- ^ "Invention of cooking drove evolution of the human species, new book argues". harvard.edu. 1 June 2009. Retrieved 26 March 2018.
- ^ "Until the Wonderwerk Cave find, Gesher Benot Ya'aqov, a lakeside site in Israel, was considered to have the oldest generally accepted evidence of human-controlled fire".
- ^ James, Steven R. (February 1989). "Hominid Use of Fire in the Lower and Middle Pleistocene: A Review of the Evidence" (PDF). Current Anthropology. 30 (1). University of Chicago Press: 1–26. doi:10.1086/203705. S2CID 146473957. Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 December 2015. Retrieved 4 April 2012.
- ^ "Anthropologists have yet to find an Acheulian hand axe gripped in a Homo erectus fist but most credit Homo erectus with developing the technology."
- ^ Lepre, Christopher J.; Roche, Hélène; Kent, Dennis V.; Harmand, Sonia; Quinn, Rhonda L.; Brugal, Jean-Philippe; Texier, Pierre-Jean; Lenoble, Arnaud; Feibel, Craig S. (2011). "An earlier origin for the Acheulian". Nature. 477 (7362): 82–85. Bibcode:2011Natur.477...82L. doi:10.1038/nature10372. PMID 21886161. S2CID 4419567.
- ^ Uomini, Natalie Thaïs; Meyer, Georg Friedrich (30 August 2013). Petraglia, Michael D. (ed.). "Shared Brain Lateralization Patterns in Language and Acheulean Stone Tool Production: A Functional Transcranial Doppler Ultrasound Study". PLOS ONE. 8 (8): e72693. Bibcode:2013PLoSO...872693U. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0072693. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 3758346. PMID 24023634.
- ^ Perreault, C.; Mathew, S. (2012). "Dating the origin of language using phonemic diversity". PLOS ONE. 7 (4): e35289. Bibcode:2012PLoSO...735289P. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0035289. PMC 3338724. PMID 22558135.
- ^ "Early humans make bone tools". Smithsonian Institution's Human Origins Program. 17 February 2010. Archived from the original on 26 November 2020. Retrieved 3 March 2020.
- ^ "Plakias Survey Finds Mesolithic and Palaeolithic Artifacts on Crete". www.ascsa.edu.gr. Retrieved 28 October 2011.
- ^ Rose, Mark (1998). "First Mariners - Archaeology Magazine Archive". archive.archaeology.org. Retrieved 16 November 2013.
- ^ Wilkins, J.; Schoville, B. J.; Brown, K. S.; Chazan, M. (15 November 2012). "Evidence for Early Hafted Hunting Technology". Science. 6109. 338 (6109): 942–946. Bibcode:2012Sci...338..942W. doi:10.1126/science.1227608. PMID 23161998. S2CID 206544031.
- ^ Barham, L.; Duller, G.A.T.; Candy, I.; et al. (2023). "Evidence for the earliest structural use of wood at least 476,000 years ago". Nature. 622 (7981): 107–111. Bibcode:2023Natur.622..107B. doi:10.1038/s41586-023-06557-9. hdl:10400.1/20204. PMC 10550827. PMID 37730994.
- ^ Clare, Lee (2020). "Göbekli Tepe, Turkey. A brief summary of research at a new World Heritage Site (2015–2019)". E-Forschungsberichte. 2020 (2). Deutsches Archäologisches Institut: 81–88. doi:10.34780/efb.v0i2.1012.
- ^ Blasco, R.; Rosell, J.; Arilla, M.; Margalida, A.; Villalba, D.; Gopher, A.; Barkai, R. (2019). "Bone marrow storage and delayed consumption at Middle Pleistocene Qesem Cave, Israel (420 to 200 ka)". Science Advances. 5 (10): eaav9822. Bibcode:2019SciA....5.9822B. doi:10.1126/sciadv.aav9822. PMC 6785254. PMID 31633015.
- ^ "BBC News – SCI/TECH – Earliest evidence of art found". BBC News. Retrieved 26 March 2018.
- ^ Kouwenhoven, Arlette P., World's Oldest Spears
- ^ Richter, D.; Krbetschek, M. (2015). "The age of the Lower Paleolithic occupation at Schöningen". Journal of Human Evolution. 89: 46–56. Bibcode:2015JHumE..89...46R. doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.06.003. PMID 26212768.
- ^ Chatterjee, Rhitu (15 March 2018). "Scientists Are Amazed By Stone Age Tools They Dug Up In Kenya". NPR. Retrieved 15 March 2018.
- ^ Yong, Ed (15 March 2018). "A Cultural Leap at the Dawn of Humanity - New finds from Kenya suggest that humans used long-distance trade networks, sophisticated tools, and symbolic pigments right from the dawn of our species". The Atlantic. Retrieved 15 March 2018.
- ^ Brooks AS, Yellen JE, Potts R, Behrensmeyer AK, Deino AL, Leslie DE, Ambrose SH, Ferguson JR, d'Errico F, Zipkin AM, Whittaker S, Post J, Veatch EG, Foecke K, Clark JB (2018). "Long-distance stone transport and pigment use in the earliest Middle Stone Age". Science. 360 (6384): 90–94. Bibcode:2018Sci...360...90B. doi:10.1126/science.aao2646. PMID 29545508.
- ^ Sahle, Y.; Hutchings, W. K.; Braun, D. R.; Sealy, J. C.; Morgan, L. E.; Negash, A.; Atnafu, B. (2013). Petraglia, Michael D (ed.). "Earliest Stone-Tipped Projectiles from the Ethiopian Rift Date to >279,000 Years Ago". PLOS ONE. 8 (11): e78092. Bibcode:2013PLoSO...878092S. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0078092. PMC 3827237. PMID 24236011.
- ^ Schmidt, P.; Blessing, M.; Rageot, M.; Iovita, R.; Pfleging, J.; Nickel, K. G.; Righetti, L.; Tennie, C. (2019). "Birch tar extraction does not prove Neanderthal behavioral complexity". PNAS. 116 (36): 17707–17711. Bibcode:2019PNAS..11617707S. doi:10.1073/pnas.1911137116. PMC 6731756. PMID 31427508.
- ^ "200,000 years ago, humans preferred to sleep in beds". phys.org. Retrieved 6 September 2020.
- ^ "The oldest known grass beds from 200,000 years ago included insect repellents". Science News. 13 August 2020. Retrieved 6 September 2020.
- ^ Wadley, Lyn; Esteban, Irene; Peña, Paloma de la; Wojcieszak, Marine; Stratford, Dominic; Lennox, Sandra; d'Errico, Francesco; Rosso, Daniela Eugenia; Orange, François; Backwell, Lucinda; Sievers, Christine (14 August 2020). "Fire and grass-bedding construction 200 thousand years ago at Border Cave, South Africa". Science. 369 (6505): 863–866. Bibcode:2020Sci...369..863W. doi:10.1126/science.abc7239. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 32792402. S2CID 221113832. Retrieved 6 September 2020.
- ^ Toups, M. A.; Kitchen, A.; Light, J. E.; Reed, D. L. (2011). "Origin of Clothing Lice Indicates Early Clothing Use by Anatomically Modern Humans in Africa". Molecular Biology and Evolution. 28: 29–32. doi:10.1093/molbev/msq234. PMC 3002236. PMID 20823373.
- ^ Bellis, Mary (1 February 2016). "The History of Clothing – How Did Specific Items of Clothing Develop?". The About Group. Archived from the original on 20 February 2023. Retrieved 12 August 2016.
- ^ Brown, K. S.; Marean, C. W.; Herries, A. I. R.; Jacobs, Z.; Tribolo, C.; Braun, D.; Roberts, D. L.; Meyer, M. C.; Bernatchez, J. (2009). "Fire As an Engineering Tool of Early Modern Humans". Science. 325 (5942): 859–862. Bibcode:2009Sci...325..859B. doi:10.1126/science.1175028. hdl:11422/11102. PMID 19679810. S2CID 43916405.
- ^ Vanhaereny, M.; d'Errico, Francesco; Stringer, Chris; James, Sarah L.; Todd, Jonathan A.; Mienis, Henk K. (2006). "Middle Paleolithic Shell Beads in Israel and Algeria". Science. 312 (5781): 1785–1788. Bibcode:2006Sci...312.1785V. doi:10.1126/science.1128139. PMID 16794076. S2CID 31098527.
- ^ Amos, Jonathan (13 October 2011). "A Cultural Leap at the Dawn of Humanity - Ancient 'paint factory' unearthed". BBC News. Retrieved 13 October 2011.
- ^ Vastag, Brian (13 October 2011). "South African cave yields paint from dawn of humanity". Washington Post. Retrieved 13 October 2011.
- ^ Henshilwood, Christopher S.; et al. (2011). "A 100,000-Year-Old Ochre-Processing Workshop at Blombos Cave, South Africa". Science. 334 (6053): 219–222. Bibcode:2011Sci...334..219H. doi:10.1126/science.1211535. PMID 21998386. S2CID 40455940.
- ^ Lieberman, Philip (1993). Uniquely Human page 163. Harvard University Press. ISBN 9780674921832. Retrieved 25 March 2011.
- ^ Yellen, JE; AS Brooks; E Cornelissen; MJ Mehlman; K Stewart (28 April 1995). "A middle stone age worked bone industry from Katanda, Upper Semliki Valley, Zaire". Science. 268 (5210): 553–556. Bibcode:1995Sci...268..553Y. doi:10.1126/science.7725100. PMID 7725100.
- ^ Wadley, L; Hodgskiss, T; Grant, M (June 2009). "Implications for complex cognition from the hafting of tools with compound adhesives in the Middle Stone Age, South Africa". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 106 (24): 9590–4. Bibcode:2009PNAS..106.9590W. doi:10.1073/pnas.0900957106. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 2700998. PMID 19433786.
- ^ Wadley, Lyn (1 June 2010). "Compound-Adhesive Manufacture as a Behavioral Proxy for Complex Cognition in the Middle Stone Age". Current Anthropology. 51 (s1): S111–S119. doi:10.1086/649836. S2CID 56253913.
- ^ Lombard M, Phillips L (2010). "Indications of bow and stone-tipped arrow use 64,000 years ago in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa". Antiquity. 84 (325): 635–648. doi:10.1017/S0003598X00100134. S2CID 162438490.
- ^ Lombard M (2011). "Quartz-tipped arrows older than 60 kya: further use-trace evidence from Sibudu, Kwa-Zulu-Natal, South Africa". Journal of Archaeological Science. 38 (8): 1918–1930. Bibcode:2011JArSc..38.1918L. doi:10.1016/j.jas.2011.04.001.
- ^ Backwell, L; Bradfield, J; Carlson, KJ; Jashashvili, T; Wadley, L; d'Errico, F (2018). "The antiquity of bow-and-arrow technology: evidence from Middle Stone Age layers at Sibudu Cave". Journal of Archaeological Science. 92 (362): 289–303. doi:10.15184/aqy.2018.11. hdl:11336/81248.
- ^ Backwell, L; d'Errico, F; Wadley, L (2008). "Middle Stone Age bone tools from the Howiesons Poort layers, Sibudu Cave, South Africa". Journal of Archaeological Science. 35 (6): 1566–1580. Bibcode:2008JArSc..35.1566B. doi:10.1016/j.jas.2007.11.006.
- ^ Wadley, Lyn (2008). "The Howieson's Poort industry of Sibudu Cave". South African Archaeological Society Goodwin Series. 10.
- ^ D. L. Hoffmann; C. D. Standish; M. García-Diez; P. B. Pettitt; J. A. Milton; J. Zilhão; J. J. Alcolea-González; P. Cantalejo-Duarte; H. Collado; R. de Balbín; M. Lorblanchet; J. Ramos-Muñoz; G.-Ch. Weniger; A. W. G. Pike (2018). "U-Th dating of carbonate crusts reveals Neandertal origin of Iberian cave art". Science. 359 (6378): 912–915. Bibcode:2018Sci...359..912H. doi:10.1126/science.aap7778. hdl:10498/21578. PMID 29472483. "we present dating results for three sites in Spain that show that cave art emerged in Iberia substantially earlier than previously thought. Uranium-thorium (U-Th) dates on carbonate crusts overlying paintings provide minimum ages for a red linear motif in La Pasiega (Cantabria), a hand stencil in Maltravieso (Extremadura), and red-painted speleothems in Ardales (Andalucía). Collectively, these results show that cave art in Iberia is older than 64.8 thousand years (ka). This cave art is the earliest dated so far and predates, by at least 20 ka, the arrival of modern humans in Europe, which implies Neandertal authorship."
- ^ Oktaviana, Adhi Agus; Joannes-Boyau, Renaud; Hakim, Budianto; Burhan, Basran; Sardi, Ratno; Adhityatama, Shinatria; Hamrullah; Sumantri, Iwan; Tang, M.; Lebe, Rustan; Ilyas, Imran; Abbas, Abdullah; Jusdi, Andi; Mahardian, Dewangga Eka; Noerwidi, Sofwan (3 July 2024). "Narrative cave art in Indonesia by 51,200 years ago". Nature. 631 (8022): 814–818. Bibcode:2024Natur.631..814O. doi:10.1038/s41586-024-07541-7. ISSN 1476-4687. PMC 11269172. PMID 38961284.
- ^ "World's oldest known ground-edge stone axe fragments found in WA". ABC News. 11 May 2016. Retrieved 3 April 2018.
- ^ "Prehistoric Japan, New perspectives on insular East Asia", Keiji Imamura, University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu, ISBN 0-8248-1853-9
- ^ Swaziland Natural Trust Commission, "Cultural Resources – Malolotja Archaeology, Lion Cavern", Retrieved 27 August 2007, "Swaziland National Trust Commission – Cultural Resources – Malolotja Archaeology, Lion Cavern". Archived from the original on 3 March 2016. Retrieved 5 February 2016..
- ^ "Major Features: Cultural Importance". Peace Parks Foundation. Archived from the original on 7 December 2008. Retrieved 15 August 2024.
- ^ Trinkaus, Erik; Shang, Hong (2008). "Anatomical evidence for the antiquity of human footwear: Tianyuan and Sunghir". Journal of Archaeological Science. 35 (7): 1928–1933. Bibcode:2008JArSc..35.1928T. doi:10.1016/j.jas.2007.12.002.
- ^ Connolly, Tom. "The World's Oldest Shoes". University of Oregon. Archived from the original on 22 July 2012. Retrieved 22 July 2012.
- ^ It is called a notched bone, illustrated in Fig. 1, 12 d'Errico, F.; Backwell, L.; Villa, P.; Degano, I.; Lucejko, J. J.; Bamford, M. K.; Higham, T. F. G.; Colombini, M. P.; Beaumont, P. B. (2012). "Early evidence of San material culture represented by organic artifacts from Border Cave, South Africa". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 109 (33): 13214–13219. Bibcode:2012PNAS..10913214D. doi:10.1073/pnas.1204213109. PMC 3421171. PMID 22847420.
- ^ "Earliest music instruments found". BBC News. 24 May 2012. Retrieved 4 November 2023.
- ^ Higham, Thomas; Basell, Laura; Jacobi, Roger; Wood, Rachel; Ramsey, Christopher Bronk; Conard, Nicholas J. (1 June 2012). "Τesting models for the beginnings of the Aurignacian and the advent of figurative art and music: The radiocarbon chronology of Geißenklösterle". Journal of Human Evolution. 62 (6): 664–676. Bibcode:2012JHumE..62..664H. doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2012.03.003. ISSN 0047-2484. PMID 22575323.
- ^ Wright, K. (15 March 1991). "The Origins and development of ground stone assemblages in Late Pleistocene Southwest Asia". Paléorient. 17 (1): 19–45. doi:10.3406/paleo.1991.4537 – via www.persee.fr.
- ^ Kvavadze, Eliso; Bar-Yosef, Ofer; Belfer-Cohen, Anna; Boaretto, Elisabetta; Jakeli, Nino; Matskevich, Zinovi; Meshveliani, Tengiz (11 September 2009). "30,000-Year-Old Wild Flax Fibers". Science. 325 (5946): 1359. Bibcode:2009Sci...325.1359K. doi:10.1126/science.1175404. PMID 19745144. S2CID 206520793.
- ^ Small, Meredith F. (April 2002). "String theory: the tradition of spinning raw fibers dates back 28,000 years (At The Museum)". Natural History. 111 (3): 14(2).
- ^ Price, Michael. "World's oldest amputation: Foot removed 31,000 years ago—without modern antibiotics or painkillers". www.science.org. Retrieved 15 August 2024.
- ^ "Wounded orangutan seen using plant as medicine". 2 May 2024.
- ^ "The occupants used flint knives, made bone tools and modelled in baked clay – on which they left their fingerprints, along with imprints of reindeer hair and textiles." "Dolni Vestonice and Pavlov sites". Donsmaps.com. Retrieved 26 April 2016.
- ^ "Several imprints of human fingers, animal hair and textile structures were incidentally produced as well" Svoboda, Jiří; Králík, Miroslav; Čulíková, Věra; Hladilová, Šárka; Novák, Martin; NývltováFišáková, Miriam; Nývlt, Daniel; Zelinková, Michaela (2009). "Pavlov VI: an Upper Palaeolithic living unit". Antiquity. 83 (320): 282–295. doi:10.1017/S0003598X00098434. S2CID 56326310. Retrieved 26 March 2018.
- ^ "Centuries-old fabric found in Çatalhöyük". Hürriyet Daily News. 4 February 2014. Retrieved 26 March 2018.
- ^ Vandiver, Pamela B.; Soffer, Olga; Klima, Bohuslav; Svoboda, JiŘi (24 November 1989). "The Origins of Ceramic Technology at Dolni Věstonice, Czechoslovakia". Science. 246 (4933): 1002–1008. Bibcode:1989Sci...246.1002V. doi:10.1126/science.246.4933.1002. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 17806391.
- ^ Perri, Angela R.; Feuerborn, Tatiana R.; Frantz, Laurent A. F.; Larson, Greger; Malhi, Ripan S.; Meltzer, David J.; Witt, Kelsey E. (2021). "Dog domestication and the dual dispersal of people and dogs into the Americas". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 118 (6): e2010083118. Bibcode:2021PNAS..11810083P. doi:10.1073/pnas.2010083118. PMC 8017920. PMID 33495362.
Advances in the isolation and sequencing of ancient DNA [... suggest] that dogs were domesticated in Siberia by ~23,000 y ago, possibly while both people and wolves were isolated during the harsh climate of the Last Glacial Maximum.
- ^ Kumbani, Joshua; Bradfield, Justin; Rusch, Neil; Wurz, Sarah (2019). "A functional investigation of southern Cape Later Stone Age artefacts resembling aerophones". Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports. 24: 693–711. Bibcode:2019JArSR..24..693K. doi:10.1016/j.jasrep.2019.02.021.
- ^ "In total, Dauvois describes or illustrates seven likely bullroarers associated with Solutrean and Magdalenian contexts" Morely, Iain, "The Evolutionary Origins and Archaeology of Music"
- ^ Dauvois, M. (1989) Son et Musique Paléolithiques, Les Dossiers D'Archéologie Vol. 142, p. 2-11.
- ^ Michael Price (16 September 2016). "World's oldest fish hook found on Okinawa". Science. Retrieved 6 August 2017.
- ^ "World's oldest fish hooks found in Japanese island cave". BBC News. 18 September 2016. Retrieved 18 September 2016.
- ^ Sparavigna, Amelia (October 2008). "The Pleiades: the celestial herd of ancient timekeepers". arXiv:0810.1592v1 [physics.hist-ph].
- ^ Lucentini, Jack. "Dr. Michael A. Rappenglueck sees maps of the night sky, and images of shamanistic ritual teeming with cosmological meaning". space. Retrieved 29 September 2009.
- ^ "BBC News - SCI/TECH - Ice Age star map discovered". BBC News. Retrieved 13 April 2018.
- ^ "Oldest sky-chart with Supernova record" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 December 2018.
- ^ "Nebra Sky Disc". Halle State Museum of Prehistory.
- ^ "The Nebra Sky Disc: decoding a prehistoric vision of the cosmos". The-Past.com. May 2022.
- ^ von Spaeth, Ove (2000). "Dating the Oldest Egyptian Star Map". Centaurus. 42 (3): 159–179. Bibcode:2000Cent...42..159V. doi:10.1034/j.1600-0498.2000.420301.x. Retrieved 21 October 2007.
- ^ Peregrine, Peter N.; Ember, Melvin (2001). "Europe". Encyclopedia of Prehistory. Vol. 4. Springer. ISBN 978-0-306-46258-0.
- ^ "Chinese pottery may be earliest discovered". Associated Press. 1 June 2009
- ^ Briggs, Helen (17 July 2018). "Prehistoric bake-off: Recipe for oldest bread revealed". British Broadcasting Corporation. Retrieved 17 July 2018.
- ^ Arranz-Otaegui, Amaia; Gonzalez Carretero, Lara; Ramsey, Monica N.; Fuller, Dorian Q.; Richter, Tobias (16 July 2018). "Archaeobotanical evidence reveals the origins of bread 14,400 years ago in northeastern Jordan". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 115 (31): 7925–7930. Bibcode:2018PNAS..115.7925A. doi:10.1073/pnas.1801071115. PMC 6077754. PMID 30012614.
- ^ Rasmussen, S. O.; Andersen, K. K.; Svensson, A. M.; Steffensen, J. P.; Vinther, B. M.; Clausen, H. B.; Siggaard-Andersen, M.-L.; Johnsen, S. J.; Larsen, L. B.; Dahl-Jensen, D.; Bigler, M. (2006). "A new Greenland ice core chronology for the last glacial termination" (PDF). Journal of Geophysical Research. 111 (D6): D06102. Bibcode:2006JGRD..111.6102R. doi:10.1029/2005JD006079. ISSN 0148-0227.
- ^ "Farming Was So Nice, It Was Invented at Least Twice". sciencemag.org. 4 July 2013. Retrieved 26 March 2018.
- ^ "The Development of Agriculture". nationalgeographic.com. Archived from the original on 14 April 2016. Retrieved 26 March 2018.
- ^ Krebs, Robert E. & Carolyn A. (2003). Groundbreaking Scientific Experiments, Inventions & Discoveries of the Ancient World. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. ISBN 0-313-31342-3.
- ^ Simmons, Paula; Carol Ekarius (2001). Storey's Guide to Raising Sheep. North Adams, MA: Storey Publishing LLC. ISBN 978-1-58017-262-2.
- ^ Curry, Andrew. "Gobekli Tepe: The World's First Temple?". smithsonianmag.com. Retrieved 26 March 2018.
- ^ Clare, Lee (2020). "Göbekli Tepe, Turkey. A brief summary of research at a new World Heritage Site (2015–2019)". E-Forschungsberichte: § 1–13. doi:10.34780/EFB.V0I2.1012. ISSN 2198-7734.
- ^ Zhijun, Zhao (1998). "The Middle Yangtze region in China is one place where rice was domesticated: phytolith evidence from the Diaotonghuan Cave, Northern Jiangxi". Antiquity. 72 (278): 885–897. doi:10.1017/s0003598x00087524. S2CID 161495218.
- ^ Tellier, Luc-Normand (2009). Urban World History: An Economic and Geographical Perspective. PUQ. ISBN 978-2-7605-2209-1.
- ^ Artioli, G. (2019). The Vitruvian legacy: mortars and binders before and after the Roman world (PDF). Vol. 20. European Mineralogical Union. pp. 151–202. ISBN 978-0903056-61-8.
- ^ Aurangzeb Khan; Carsten Lemmen (2013). "Bricks and urbanism in the Indus Valley rise and decline". Academia. arXiv:1303.1426. Retrieved 16 February 2013.
- ^ "Stone Age wells found in Cyprus". BBC News. 25 June 2009. Archived from the original on 5 October 2013. Retrieved 31 July 2009.
- ^ "World's ever first known town – Catalhuyuk | Cities Now". Archived from the original on 18 November 2015. Retrieved 1 November 2015.
- ^ McGovern, Patrick E.; Zhang, Juzhong; Tang, Jigen; Zhang, Zhiqing; Hall, Gretchen R.; Moreau, Robert A.; Nuñez, Alberto; Butrym, Eric D.; Richards, Michael P.; Wang, Chen-shan; Cheng, Guangsheng; Zhao, Zhijun; Wang, Changsui (21 December 2004). "Fermented beverages of pre- and proto-historic China". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 101 (51): 17593–17598. Bibcode:2004PNAS..10117593M. doi:10.1073/pnas.0407921102. PMC 539767. PMID 15590771.
- ^ Grimm, David (26 May 2017). "Earliest evidence for dog breeding found on remote Siberian island". Science. Retrieved 28 May 2020.
- ^ Possehl, Gregory L. (1996). Mehrgarh in Oxford Companion to Archaeology, edited by Brian Fagan. Oxford University Press.
- ^ Heskel, Dennis L. (1983). "A Model for the Adoption of Metallurgy in the Ancient Middle East". Current Anthropology. 24 (3): 362–366. doi:10.1086/203007. S2CID 144332393.
- ^ Piotr Bienkowski; Alan Millard (15 April 2010). Dictionary of the Ancient Near East. University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 233. ISBN 978-0-8122-2115-2.
- ^ Flannery, Kent V. (1969). "Origins and ecological effects of early domestication in Iran and the Near East". In Ucko, Peter John; Dimbleby, G. W. (eds.). The Domestication and Exploitation of Plants and Animals. New Brunswick, New Jersey: Transaction Publishers (published 2007). p. 89. ISBN 9780202365572. Retrieved 12 January 2019.
- ^ Lawton, H. W.; Wilke, P. J. (1979). "Ancient Agricultural Systems in Dry Regions of the Old World". In Hall, A. E.; Cannell, G. H.; Lawton, H.W. (eds.). Agriculture in Semi-Arid Environments. Ecological Studies. Vol. 34 (reprint ed.). Berlin: Springer Science & Business Media (published 2012). p. 13. ISBN 9783642673283. Retrieved 12 January 2019.
- ^ Mattessich, Richard (2002). "The Oldest Writings, and Inventory Tags of Egypt". The Accounting Historians Journal. 29 (1): 195–208. doi:10.2308/0148-4184.29.1.195. JSTOR 40698264. S2CID 160704269.
- ^ Subbaraman, Nidhi (12 December 2012). "Art of cheese-making is 7,500 years old". Nature News. doi:10.1038/nature.2012.12020. S2CID 180646880. Archived from the original on 11 January 2013. Retrieved 12 December 2012.
- ^ McClure, Sarah B.; Magill, Clayton; Podrug, Emil; Moore, Andrew M. T.; Harper, Thomas K.; Culleton, Brendan J.; Kennett, Douglas J.; Freeman, Katherine H. (5 September 2018). "Fatty acid specific δ13C values reveal earliest Mediterranean cheese production 7,200 years ago". PLOS ONE. 13 (9): e0202807. Bibcode:2018PLoSO..1302807M. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0202807. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 6124750. PMID 30183735.
- ^ Carter, Robert (8 December 2012). "The Neolithic origins of seafaring in the Arabian Gulf". Archaeology International. 6. doi:10.5334/ai.0613. ISSN 2048-4194.
- ^ John Coleman Darnell (2006). "The Wadi of the Horus Qa-a: A Tableau of Royal Ritual Power in the Theban Western Desert". Yale University. Archived from the original on 1 February 2011. Retrieved 24 August 2010.
- ^ The sea-craft of prehistory, p76, by Paul Johnstone, Routledge, 1980
- ^ Radivojević, Miljana; Rehren, Thilo; Pernicka, Ernst; Šljivar, Dušan; Brauns, Michael; Borić, Dušan (2010). "On the origins of extractive metallurgy: new evidence from Europe". Journal of Archaeological Science. 37 (11): 2775–2787. Bibcode:2010JArSc..37.2775R. doi:10.1016/j.jas.2010.06.012.
- ^ Radivojević, Miljana; Roberts, Benjamin W. (2021). "Early Balkan Metallurgy: Origins, Evolution and Society, 6200–3700 BC". Journal of World Prehistory. 34 (2): 195–278. doi:10.1007/s10963-021-09155-7. ISSN 0892-7537.
- ^ Galili, Ehud; Benjamin, Jonathan; Eshed, Vered; Rosen, Baruch; McCarthy, John; Horwitz, Liora Kolska (18 December 2019). "A submerged 7000-year-old village and seawall demonstrate earliest known coastal defence against sea-level rise". PLOS ONE. 14 (12): e0222560. Bibcode:2019PLoSO..1422560G. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0222560. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 6919572. PMID 31851675.
- ^ Li, Li (2011). China's Cultural Relics (3rd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 139–140. ISBN 9780521186568.
- ^ Loewe (1968), 170–171
- ^ Mithen, Steven (2006), After the Ice: A Global Human History, 20,000-5000 BC, Harvard University Press, pp. 411–412, ISBN 978-0-674-01999-7
- ^ Moulherat, C.; Tengberg, M.; Haquet, J. R. M. F.; Mille, B. ̂T. (2002). "First Evidence of Cotton at Neolithic Mehrgarh, Pakistan: Analysis of Mineralized Fibres from a Copper Bead". Journal of Archaeological Science. 29 (12): 1393–1401. Bibcode:2002JArSc..29.1393M. doi:10.1006/jasc.2001.0779.
- ^ JIA, Yinhua; PAN, Zhaoe; HE, Shoupu; GONG, Wenfang; GENG, Xiaoli; PANG, Baoyin; WANG, Liru; DU, Xiongming (2018). "Genetic diversity and population structure of Gossypium arboreum L. collected in China". Journal of Cotton Research. 1 (1): 11. Bibcode:2018JCotR...1...11J. doi:10.1186/s42397-018-0011-0. ISSN 2523-3254.
- ^ Deng, Gang. (1997). Chinese Maritime Activities and Socioeconomic Development, c. 2100 B.C.–1900 A.D. Westport: Greenwood Press. ISBN 0-313-29212-4, p. 22.
- ^ Miriam T. Stark (15 April 2008). Archaeology of Asia. John Wiley & Sons. p. 130. ISBN 978-1-4051-5303-4. Retrieved 5 October 2012.
- ^ Radivojević, Miljana; Rehren, Thilo; Kuzmanović-Cvetković, Julka; Jovanović, Marija; Northover, J. Peter (1 December 2013). "Tainted ores and the rise of tin bronzes in Eurasia, c. 6500 years ago". Antiquity. 87 (338): 1030–1045. doi:10.1017/S0003598X0004984X. ISSN 0003-598X. S2CID 46355411.
- ^ Muhly, J.D., The Beginnings of Metallurgy in the Old World. In Maddin 1988
- ^ Thoury, M.; et al. (2016). "High spatial dynamics-photoluminescence imaging reveals the metallurgy of the earliest lost-wax cast object". Nature Communications. 7. doi:10.1038/ncomms13356.
- ^ Yoshinori Yasuda (2012). Water Civilization: From Yangtze to Khmer Civilizations. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 30–31. ISBN 9784431541103.
- ^ Hershey, W. (1940). The Book of Diamonds. New York: Hearthside Press. pp. 22–28. ISBN 978-1-4179-7715-4.
- ^ Beazley, Robert E.; Lassoie, James P. (22 June 2017). Himalayan Mobilities: An Exploration of the Impact of Expanding Rural Road Networks on Social and Ecological Systems in the Nepalese Himalaya. Springer. ISBN 978-3-319-55757-1.
- ^ Eslamian, Saeid (2014). Handbook of Engineering Hydrology: Environmental Hydrology and Water Management, Book 3. Boca Raton: CRC Press. p. 168. ISBN 9781466552500..
- ^ Teresi, Dick (2002). Lost Discoveries: The Ancient Roots of Modern Science--from the Babylonians to the Maya. New York: Simon & Schuster. pp. 351–352. ISBN 0-684-83718-8.
- ^ a b Bunson, Margaret (14 May 2014). Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt. Infobase Publishing. p. 6. ISBN 978-1-4381-0997-8.
- ^ de Vries, N. Cross and D. P. Grant, M. J. (1992). Design Methodology and Relationships with Science: Introduction. Eindhoven: Kluwer Academic Publishers. p. 32. ISBN 9780792321910. Archived from the original on 24 October 2016.
- ^ Chandler, Graham (2017). "Why Reinvent the Wheel?". Aramco World. Retrieved 3 July 2024.
- ^ a b Standage, Tom (2021). A Brief History of Motion: From the Wheel, to the Car, to What Comes Next. New York: Bloomsbury Publishing. pp. 2–5. ISBN 978-1-63557-361-9. OCLC 1184237267.
- ^ Mary Schoeser (28 May 2007). Silk. Yale University Press. pp. 18. ISBN 978-0-300-11741-7.
- ^ Matossian Shaping World History p. 43
- ^ "What We Theorize – When and Where Domestication Occurred". International Museum of the Horse. Archived from the original on 19 July 2016. Retrieved 27 January 2015.
- ^ "Horsey-aeology, Binary Black Holes, Tracking Red Tides, Fish Re-evolution, Walk Like a Man, Fact or Fiction". Quirks and Quarks Podcast with Bob Macdonald. CBC Radio. 7 March 2009. Retrieved 18 September 2010.
- ^ Powell MA (2004). "9: Wine and the vine in ancient Mesopotamia: the cuneiform evidence". In McGovern PE, Fleming SJ, Katz SH (eds.). The Origins and Ancient History of Wine. Food and Nutrition in History and Anthropology. Vol. 11 (1 ed.). Amsterdam: Taylor & Francis. pp. 96–124. ISBN 9780203392836. ISSN 0275-5769. Retrieved 15 September 2010.
- ^ Brown, Brian A.; Feldman, Marian H. (2013). Critical Approaches to Ancient Near Eastern Art. Walter de Gruyter. p. 304. ISBN 9781614510352.
- ^ "Institute of Archeology of CAS report". Archived from the original on 29 August 2018. Retrieved 28 August 2018.
- ^ B. B. Lal, India 1947–1997: New Light on the Indus Civilization
- ^ Deter-Wolf, Aaron; Robitaille, Benoît; Krutak, Lars; Galliot, Sébastien (February 2016). "The World's Oldest Tattoos" (PDF). Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports. 5: 19–24. Bibcode:2016JArSR...5...19D. doi:10.1016/j.jasrep.2015.11.007. S2CID 162580662.
- ^ Deter-Wolf, Aaron (11 November 2015), It's official: Ötzi the Iceman has the oldest tattoos in the world, RedOrbit.com, retrieved 25 July 2019
- ^ Karen Radner; Eleanor Robson (22 September 2011). The Oxford Handbook of Cuneiform Culture. Oxford University Press. pp. 86. ISBN 978-0-19-955730-1.
- ^ "The world's earliest known writing systems emerged at more or less the same time, around 3300 bc, in Egypt and Mesopotamia (today's Iraq)."Teeter, Emily (2011). Before the Pyramids: The Origins of Egyptian Civilization. Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago. p. 99.
- ^ "Although it was once thought that the idea of writing came to Egypt from Mesopotamia, recent discoveries indicate that writing arose first in Egypt."Allen, James P. (2010). Middle Egyptian: An Introduction to the Language and Culture of Hieroglyphs. Cambridge University Press. p. 2. ISBN 9781139486354.
- ^ "and examples of writing in Egypt have been found that very well may pre-date the earliest writing from Mesopotamia."Boudreau, Vincent (2004). The First Writing: Script Invention as History and Process. Cambridge University Press. p. 71. ISBN 9780521838610.
- ^ Frangipane, M. et.al. (2010). "The collapse of the 4th millennium centralised system at Arslantepe and the far-reaching changes in 3rd millennium societies". ORIGINI XXXIV, 2012: 237–60.
- ^ a b Yener, K. Aslihan (2021). The Domestication of Metals: The Rise of Complex Metal Industries in Anatolia. Culture and History of the Ancient Near East (Vol. 4). BRILL. pp. 52–53. ISBN 978-9004496934. Retrieved 15 January 2024.
- ^ "Uruk: The First City". www.metmuseum.org. 2003. Retrieved 28 February 2022.
- ^ Davis, Nicola (30 August 2016). "It becometh the iceman: clothing study reveals stylish secrets of leather-loving ancient". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 30 August 2016. Retrieved 30 August 2016.
- ^ Romey, Kristin (18 August 2016). "Here's What the Iceman Was Wearing When He Died 5,300 Years Ago". National Geographic. Archived from the original on 19 August 2016. Retrieved 18 August 2016.
- ^ O’Sullivan, Niall J.; Teasdale, Matthew D.; Mattiangeli, Valeria; Maixner, Frank; Pinhasi, Ron; Bradley, Daniel G.; Zink, Albert (18 August 2016). "A whole mitochondria analysis of the Tyrolean Iceman's leather provides insights into the animal sources of Copper Age clothing". Scientific Reports. 6: 31279. Bibcode:2016NatSR...631279O. doi:10.1038/srep31279. ISSN 2045-2322. PMC 4989873. PMID 27537861.
- ^ Mitchell, Piers D. (3 March 2016). Sanitation, Latrines and Intestinal Parasites in Past Populations. Routledge. p. 22. ISBN 978-1-317-05953-0.
- ^ Smith, Monica L. (18 April 2019). Cities: The First 6,000 Years. Simon & Schuster UK. ISBN 978-1-4711-6367-8.
- ^ George, A.R. (December 2015). "On Babylonian Lavatories and Sewers". Iraq. 77: 75–106. doi:10.1017/irq.2015.9. ISSN 0021-0889. S2CID 162653122.
- ^ Finkel, Irving (2008). "Board Games". Beyond Babylon: Art, Trade, and Diplomacy in the Second Millennium B.C. Metropolitan Museum of Art. p. 151. ISBN 978-1-58839-295-4.
- ^ "8 Oldest Board Games in the World". Oldest.org. 29 November 2017. Retrieved 12 March 2022.
- ^ NASER MOGHADASI, Abdorreza (September 2015). "The Burnt City and the Evolution of the Concept of "Probability" In the Human Brain". Iranian Journal of Public Health. 44 (9): 1306–1307. ISSN 2251-6085. PMC 4645795. PMID 26587512.
- ^ Possehl, Gregory. "Meluhha". In: J. Reade (ed.) The Indian Ocean in Antiquity. London: Kegan Paul Intl. 1996a, 133–208
- ^ Cierny, J.; Weisgerber, G. (2003). "The "Bronze Age tin mines in Central Asia". In Giumlia-Mair, A.; Lo Schiavo, F. (eds.). The Problem of Early Tin. Oxford: Archaeopress. pp. 23–31. ISBN 1-84171-564-6.
- ^ Steven Roger Fischer (4 April 2004). History of Writing. Reaktion Books. p. 47. ISBN 978-1-86189-167-9.
- ^ "Papyrus: A Brief History – Dartmouth Ancient Books Lab". sites.dartmouth.edu. Retrieved 28 February 2022.
- ^ Paul Johnson (3 November 1999). The Civilization Of Ancient Egypt. HarperCollins. p. 163. ISBN 978-0-06-019434-5.
- ^ a b "4,500-year-old harbor structures and papyrus texts unearthed in Egypt". NBC News. 16 April 2013. Retrieved 12 May 2020.
- ^ Rodda, John; Ubertini, Lucio, eds. (2004). The Basis of Civilization – Water Science?. International Association of Hydrological Science. p. 161. ISBN 978-1-901502-57-2. OCLC 224463869.
- ^ "World's oldest writing not poetry but a shopping receipt". 13 April 2011.
- ^ Pine, Keith R.; Sloan, Brian H.; Jacobs, Robert J. (2015). Clinical Ocular Prosthetics. Springer. ISBN 9783319190570.
- ^ Shiffman, Melvin (5 September 2012). Cosmetic Surgery: Art and Techniques. Springer. p. 20. ISBN 978-3-642-21837-8.
- ^ Mazzola, Ricardo F.; Mazzola, Isabella C. (5 September 2012). "History of reconstructive and aesthetic surgery". In Neligan, Peter C.; Gurtner, Geoffrey C. (eds.). Plastic Surgery: Principles. Elsevier Health Sciences. pp. 11–12. ISBN 978-1-4557-1052-2.
- ^ McIntosh, Jane (2008). The Ancient Indus Valley: New Perspectives. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-57607-907-2.
- ^ Davreu, Robert (1978). "Cities of Mystery: The Lost Empire of the Indus Valley". The World's Last Mysteries. (second edition). Sydney: Reader's Digest. pp. 121-129. ISBN 978-0-909486-61-7.
- ^ Kipfer, Barbara Ann (2000). Encyclopedic Dictionary of Archaeology. (Illustrated edition). New York: Springer. p. 229. ISBN 978-0-3064-6158-3.
- ^ Khan, Dr Saifullah. "Chapter 2 Sanitation and wastewater technologies in Harappa/Indus valley civilization (ca. 2600-1900 BC)".
- ^ Harappa, com. "'Great Bath' Mohenjadaro". Slide show with description by J. M. Kenoyer. Harappa.com. Retrieved 2 July 2012.
- ^ "Indus River Valley Civilizations". History-world.org. Archived from the original on 1 July 2005. Retrieved 12 September 2008.
- ^ Rahmstorf, Lorenz. "In Search of the Earliest Balance Weights, Scales and Weighing Systems from the East Mediterranean, the Near and Middle East".
- ^ Stainburn, Samantha (18 April 2013). "Archeologists discover oldest Egyptian harbor ever found". Global Post. Retrieved 21 April 2013.
- ^ "Foraminifera as an additional tool for archaeologists - Examples from the Arabian Sea". 25 September 2015.
- ^ Codebò, Mario (2013). "ARCHAEOASTRONOMICAL SURVEYS IN LOTHAL (INDIA)". www.archaeoastronomy.it. Retrieved 10 May 2020.
- ^ Frenez, D. (2014). Lothal re-visitation Project, a fine thread connecting Intis to contemporary Raveena (Via Oman). UK: BAR. pp. 263–267. ISBN 9781407313269.
- ^ Rao, pages 27–28
- ^ "Archaeological remains of a Harappa Port-Town, Lothal". UNESCO. UN. Retrieved 10 May 2020.
- ^ S. R. Rao (1985). Lothal. Archaeological Survey of India. pp. 11–17.
- ^ Ghosh, S. and Banerjee, Utpal Kumar, Indian Puppets, Abhinav Publications, 2006. ISBN 81-7017-435-X
- ^ "Pulling the strings to resuscitate a dying art". The Hindu. Thanjavur, India. 17 August 2012.
- ^ Needham, Joseph (22 January 2001). Science and Civilisation in China. Volume 6: Biology and biological technology. Part V: Fermentations and food science. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521652707.
- ^ Venable, Shannon L. (2011). Gold : A Cultural Encyclopedia. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, LLC. pp. 264. ISBN 978-0313-384318.
- ^ Jackson, Howard (24 February 2022). The Bloomsbury Handbook of Lexicography. Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN 978-1-350-18172-4.
- ^ Akanuma, Hideo (2008). "The significance of Early Bronze Age iron objects from Kaman-Kalehöyük, Turkey" (PDF). Anatolian Archaeological Studies. 17. Tokyo: Japanese Institute of Anatolian Archaeology: 313–320.
- ^ S. R. Rao (1985). Lothal. Archaeological Survey of India. pp. 40–41.
- ^ Rao (July 1992). "A Navigational Instrument of the Harappan Sailors" (PDF). Marine Archaeology. 3: 61–66. Notes: protractor described as "compass" in article.
- ^ Pingree, David (1998). "Legacies in Astronomy and Celestial Omens". In Stephanie Dalley (ed.). The Legacy of Mesopotamia. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 125–126. ISBN 0-19-814946-8.
- ^ Rao, N. Kameswara (December 2005). "Aspects of prehistoric astronomy in India" (PDF). Bulletin of the Astronomical Society of India. 33 (4): 499–511. Bibcode:2005BASI...33..499R. Retrieved 11 May 2007.
It appears that two artifacts from Mohenjadaro and Harappa might correspond to these two instruments. Joshi and Parpola (1987) lists a few pots tapered at the bottom and having a hole on the side from the excavations at Mohenjadaro (Figure 3). A pot with a small hole to drain the water is very similar to clepsydras described by Ohashi to measure the time (similar to the utensil used over the lingum in Shiva temple for abhishekam).
- ^ David S. Anthony, The Horse, The Wheel and Language: How bronze age riders from the Eurasian steppes shaped the modern world (2007), pp. 397-405.
- ^ "History 101: Scissors". Daily Kos. Retrieved 28 February 2022.
- ^ "British Library". www.bl.uk. Archived from the original on 1 March 2022. Retrieved 1 March 2022.
- ^ Wilkins, Robert H. (1992) [First published 1965]. Neurosurgical Classics (2nd ed.). Park Ridge, Illinois: American Association of Neurological Surgeons. ISBN 978-1-879284-09-8. LCCN 2011293270.
- ^ Lienhard, John H. "No. 993: SUNDIALS". The Engines of Our Ingenuity. Huston Public Media. Retrieved 1 March 2022.
- ^ "Glassmaking may have begun in Egypt, not Mesopotamia". Science News. 22 November 2016. Retrieved 28 February 2022.
- ^ History Channel, Where Did It Come From? Episode: "Ancient China: Agriculture"
- ^ a b "Rubber balls used in Mesoamerican game 3,500 years ago". The Independent. 1 June 2010. Archived from the original on 7 May 2022. Retrieved 14 May 2020.
- ^ Shelton, pp. 109–110. There is wide agreement on game originating in the tropical lowlands, likely the Gulf Coast or Pacific Coast.
- ^ Heinrich Schliemann; Wilhelm Dörpfeld; Felix Adler (1885). Tiryns: The Prehistoric Palace of the Kings of Tiryns, the Results of the Latest Excavations. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. pp. 190, 203–04, 215.
- ^ Sparavigna, Amelia Carolina (2011). "Ancient concrete works". arXiv:1110.5230 [physics.pop-ph].
- ^ "What is a Lathe Machine? History, Parts, and Operation". Brighthub Engineering. 12 December 2009. Retrieved 26 March 2018.
- ^ Levey, Martin (1959). Chemistry and Chemical Technology in Ancient Mesopotamia. Elsevier. p. 36.
As already mentioned, the textual evidence for Sumero-Babylonian distillation is disclosed in a group of Akkadian tablets describing perfumery operations, dated ca. 1200 B.C.
- ^ Millek, Jesse (2021). "Why Did the World End in 1200 BCE". Ancient Near East Today. 9 (8).
- ^ North, John (1995). The Norton History of Astronomy and Cosmology. New York and London: W.W. Norton & Company. pp. 30–31. ISBN 0-393-03656-1.
- ^ History of the Constellations and Star Names — D.4: Sumerian constellations and star names? Archived 2015-09-07 at the Wayback Machine, by Gary D. Thompson
- ^ History of the Constellations and Star Names — D.5: Elamite lion-bull iconography as constellations? Archived 2012-11-14 at the Wayback Machine, by Gary D. Thompson
- ^ Beatie, Russel H. Saddles, University of Oklahoma Press, 1981 Archived 23 January 2014 at the Wayback Machine, ISBN 080611584X, 9780806115849 P.18-22
- ^ Murray, Stuart (2009). The Library: An Illustrated History. New York: Skyhorse Publishing. p. 9. ISBN 978-1-61608-453-0.
- ^ Jacobsen T and Lloyd S, (1935) "Sennacherib's Aqueduct at Jerwan", Oriental Institute Publications 24, Chicago University Press
- ^ Lechtman and Hobbs "Roman Concrete and the Roman Architectural Revolution"
- ^ "The History of Concrete". Dept. of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign. Archived from the original on 27 November 2012. Retrieved 8 January 2013.
- ^ Loades, Mike (2018), The Crossbow, Osprey
- ^ M. Kroll, review of G. Le Rider's La naissance de la monnaie, Schweizerische Numismatische Rundschau 80 (2001), p. 526. D. Sear, Greek Coins and Their Values Vol. 2, Seaby, London, 1979, p. 317.
- ^ Hans-Liudger, Dienel; Wolfgang, Meighörner (1997): "Der Tretradkran", Technikgeschichte series, 2nd ed., Deutsches Museum, München, p. 13
- ^ Davidson, Hilda Ellis (1998). The Sword in Anglo-Saxon England: Its Archaeology and Literature. Boydell & Brewer Ltd. p. 20. ISBN 0-85115-716-5.
- ^ Srinivasan, S.; Ranganathan, S. "Wootz Steel: an advanced material of the ancient world". Bangalore: Department of Metallurgy, Indian Institute of Science. Archived from the original on 19 November 2018.
- ^ Sanderson, Katharine (15 November 2006). "Sharpest cut from nanotube sword". Nature: news061113–11. doi:10.1038/news061113-11. S2CID 136774602.
- ^ Hoernle, A. F. Rudolf (1907). Studies in the Medicine of Ancient India: Osteology or the Bones of the Human Body. Oxford, UK: Clarendon Press.
- ^ Wendy Doniger (2014), On Hinduism, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0199360079, page 79;
Sarah Boslaugh (2007), Encyclopedia of Epidemiology, Volume 1, SAGE Publications, ISBN 978-1412928168, page 547, Quote: "The Hindu text known as Sushruta Samhita is possibly the earliest effort to classify diseases and injuries" - ^ Meulenbeld, Gerrit Jan (1999). A History of Indian Medical Literature. Groningen: Brill (all volumes, 1999-2002). ISBN 978-9069801247.
- ^ Ascaso, Francisco J.; Lizana, Joaquín; Cristóbal, José A. (1 March 2009). "Cataract surgery in ancient Egypt". Journal of Cataract & Refractive Surgery. 35 (3): 607–608. doi:10.1016/j.jcrs.2008.11.052. ISSN 0886-3350. PMID 19251160.
- ^ a b c Singh, Vibha (January–June 2017). "Sushruta: The father of surgery". National Journal of Maxillofacial Surgery. 8 (1): 1–3. doi:10.4103/njms.NJMS_33_17. PMC 5512402. PMID 28761269.
- ^ Dwivedi, Girish & Dwivedi, Shridhar (2007). History of Medicine: Sushruta – the Clinician – Teacher par Excellence Archived 10 October 2008 at the Wayback Machine. National Informatics Centre (Government of India).
- ^ Curtis 2008, p. 375.
- ^ Frankel, Rafael (2003): "The Olynthus Mill, Its Origin, and Diffusion: Typology and Distribution", American Journal of Archaeology, Vol. 107, No. 1, pp. 1–21 (17–19)
- ^ Ritti, Tullia; Grewe, Klaus; Kessener, Paul (2007): "A Relief of a Water-powered Stone Saw Mill on a Sarcophagus at Hierapolis and its Implications", Journal of Roman Archaeology, Vol. 20, pp. 138–163 (159)
- ^ "Reserve Bank of India - Publications".
In ancient India, loan deed forms called rnapatra or rnalekhya were in use. These contained details such as the name of the debtor and the creditor, the amount of loan, the rate of interest, the condition of repayment and the time of repayment. The deed was witnessed by a person of respectable means and endorsed by the loan-deed writer. Execution of loan deeds continued during the Buddhist period, when they were called inapanna.
- ^ Elinor Dewire and Dolores Reyes-Pergioudakis (2010). The Lighthouses of Greece. Sarasota: Pineapple Press. ISBN 978-1-56164-452-0, pp 1-5.
- ^ Saddles, Author Russel H. Beatie, Publisher University of Oklahoma Press, 1981, ISBN 080611584X, 9780806115849 P.28
- ^ White, Lynn Townsend. Medieval Technology and Social Change, Publisher Oxford University Press, 1964, ISBN 0195002660, 9780195002669 P.14
- ^ Chamberlin, J. Edward (2007). Horse: How the Horse Has Shaped Civilizations. Moscow: Olma Media Group. ISBN 1-904955-36-3.
- ^ a b Singh, Upinder (2016), A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century, Pearson PLC, ISBN 978-81-317-1677-9
- ^ a b Jain, Kailash Chand (1991), Lord Mahāvīra and His Times, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-81-208-0805-8
- ^ a b Wagner (2001), 7, 36–37, 64–68. 335.
- ^ Ebrey, Walthall, and Palais (2006), 30.
- ^ Pigott (1999), 177.
- ^ Beckmann, Martin (2002): "The 'Columnae Coc(h)lides' of Trajan and Marcus Aurelius", Phoenix, Vol. 56, No. 3/4, pp. 348–357 (354)
- ^ Ruggeri, Stefania (2006): "Selinunt", Edizioni Affinità Elettive, Messina, ISBN 88-8405-079-0, p. 77
- ^ M. J. T. Lewis, "The Origins of the Wheelbarrow", Technology and Culture, Vol. 35, No. 3. (July 1994), pp. 470
- ^ Needham, Joseph (1965). Science and Civilisation in China: Volume 4, Physics and Physical Technology, Part 2, Mechanical Engineering; rpr. Taipei: Caves Books Ltd., page 265
- ^ "What is a camera obscura?". Camera Obscura and World of Illusions Edinburgh. Retrieved 7 January 2022.
- ^ "Palette de scribe". Antiquités égyptiennes du Louvre (in French).
- ^ a b Joseph F. O'Callaghan; Donald J. Kagay; Theresa M. Vann (1998). On the Social Origins of Medieval Institutions: Essays in Honor of Joseph F. O'Callaghan. BRILL. p. 179. ISBN 978-90-04-11096-0.
Developed in China between the fifth and fourth centuries BC, it reached the Mediterranean by the sixth century AD
- ^ Bates, W. N. (1902). "Etruscan Horseshoes from Corneto — AJA 6:398‑403". penelope.uchicago.edu. Retrieved 7 January 2022.
- ^ Curtis 2008, p. 376.
- ^ de Vos 2011, p. 178.
- ^ Vikramaditya S. Khanna (2005). The Economic History of the Corporate Form in Ancient India. University of Michigan.
- ^ "Reserve Bank of India - Publications".
In the Mauryan period, an instrument called adesha was in use, which was an order on a banker desiring him to pay the money of the note to a third person
- ^ Roy, Kaushik (2014). Military Transition in Early Modern Asia, 1400-1750. London: Bloomsbury Academic. p. 19. ISBN 978-1-7809-3765-6.
- ^ Vergiani, Vincenzo (2017), "Bhartrhari on Language, Perception, and Consciousness", in Ganeri, Jonardon (ed.), The Oxford Handbook of Indian Philosophy, Oxford University Press
- ^ Craddock et al. 1983. (The earliest evidence for the production of zinc comes from India. Srinivasan, Sharda and Srinivasa Rangnathan. 2004)
- ^ Srinivasan, Ranganathan. "Mettalurgical heritage of India". Christian-Albrechts-University of Kiel. Retrieved 4 November 2011.
- ^ Rina Shrivastva (1999). "Smelting furnaces in Ancient India" (PDF). Indian Journal of History & Science,34(1), Digital Library of India. Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 April 2012. Retrieved 4 November 2011.
- ^ Harry Henderson (1 January 2009). Encyclopedia of Computer Science and Technology. Infobase Publishing. p. 13. ISBN 978-1-4381-1003-5. Retrieved 28 May 2013.
The earliest known analog computing device is the Antikythera mechanism.
- ^ "Archimedes' Screw". Kenyon. Retrieved 11 July 2018.
- ^ Moore, Frank Gardner (1950): "Three Canal Projects, Roman and Byzantine", American Journal of Archaeology, Vol. 54, No. 2, pp. 97–111 (99–101)
- ^ Froriep, Siegfried (1986): "Ein Wasserweg in Bithynien. Bemühungen der Römer, Byzantiner und Osmanen", Antike Welt, 2nd Special Edition, pp. 39–50 (46)
- ^ Schörner, Hadwiga (2000): "Künstliche Schiffahrtskanäle in der Antike. Der sogenannte antike Suez-Kanal", Skyllis, Vol. 3, No. 1, pp. 28–43 (33–35, 39)
- ^ Wilson, Andrew (2002): "Machines, Power and the Ancient Economy", The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 92, pp. 1–32 (16) JSTOR 3184857
- ^ Selin, Helaine (2013). Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Westen Cultures. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 282. ISBN 9789401714167.
- ^ Oleson, John Peter (2000): "Water-Lifting", in: Wikander, Örjan: "Handbook of Ancient Water Technology", Technology and Change in History, Vol. 2, Brill, Leiden, ISBN 90-04-11123-9, pp. 217–302 (233)
- ^ Carter, Ernest Frank (1967). Dictionary of Inventions and Discoveries. Philosophical Library. p. 74.
- ^ Oleson, John Peter (1984), Greek and Roman Mechanical Water-Lifting Devices: The History of a Technology, University of Toronto Press, p. 33, ISBN 90-277-1693-5
- ^ Pigott (1999), 183–184.
- ^ Casson, Lionel (1995): "Ships and Seamanship in the Ancient World", Johns Hopkins University Press, ISBN 978-0-8018-5130-8, pp. 243–245
- ^ Buisseret (1998), 12.
- ^ Guarnieri, M (2014). "Once Upon a Time, the Compass". IEEE Industrial Electronics Magazine. doi:10.1109/MIE.2014.2316044. S2CID 11949042.
- ^ O'Connor, Colin: Roman Bridges, Cambridge University Press, 1993, ISBN 0-521-39326-4, p. 171
- ^ Galliazzo, Vittorio (1995): "I ponti romani", Vol. 1, Edizioni Canova, Treviso, ISBN 88-85066-66-6, pp. 429–437
- ^ public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Acta Diurna". Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 1 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 159. One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the
- ^ "Newspaper - MSN Encarta". Archived from the original on 6 December 2008. Retrieved 17 December 2008.
- ^ Irving Fang, A History of Mass Communication: Six Information Revolutions, Focal Press, 1997, p. 30
- ^ Lamont, Ian, "The Rise of the Press in Late Imperial China", 27 November 2007
- ^ Smith, Norman (1971): "A History of Dams", Peter Davies, London, ISBN 978-0-432-15090-0, pp. 25–49 (33–35)
- ^ Schnitter, Niklaus (1978): "Römische Talsperren", Antike Welt, Vol. 8, No. 2, pp. 25–32 (31f.)
- ^ Schnitter, Niklaus (1987): "Verzeichnis geschichtlicher Talsperren bis Ende des 17. Jahrhunderts", in: Garbrecht, Günther (ed.): Historische Talsperren, Verlag Konrad Wittwer, Stuttgart, Vol. 1, ISBN 3-87919-145-X, pp. 9–20 (12)
- ^ Schnitter, Niklaus (1987): "Die Entwicklungsgeschichte der Bogenstaumauer", Garbrecht, Günther (ed.): Historische Talsperren, Vol. 1, Verlag Konrad Wittwer, Stuttgart, ISBN 3-87919-145-X, pp. 75–96 (80)
- ^ Hodge, A. Trevor (2000): "Reservoirs and Dams", in: Wikander, Örjan: Handbook of Ancient Water Technology, Technology and Change in History, Vol. 2, Brill, Leiden, ISBN 90-04-11123-9, pp. 331–339 (332, fn. 2)
- ^ Needham, Volume 4, Part 2, 184.
- ^ Avigad, N (1983). Discovering Jerusalem. Nashville. ISBN 0-8407-5299-7
- ^ Tatton-Brown, V. (1991). "The Roman Empire". In H. Tait (ed.) Five Thousand Years of Glass. pp. 62–97. British Museum Press: London ISBN 0-8122-1888-4
- ^ Birgit Schlick-Nolte; E. Marianne (1994). Early glass of the ancient world: 1600 B.C.-A.D. 50 : Ernesto Wolf collection. Verlag Gerd Hatje. pp. 81–83. ISBN 978-3-7757-0502-8.
- ^ Davies, Oliver: Roman Mines in Europe, Oxford (1935)
- ^ Lu, Houyuan; Yang, Xiaoyan; Ye, Maolin (13 October 2005). "Culinary archaeology: Millet noodles in Late Neolithic China". Nature. 437 (7061): 967–968. Bibcode:2005Natur.437..967L. doi:10.1038/437967a. PMID 16222289. S2CID 4385122.
- ^ "turbine". Encyclopædia Britannica. 2007. Retrieved 18 July 2007.
- ^ Wikisource. (in Latin) – via
- ^ Cosano, Daniel; Manuel Román, Juan; Esquivel, Dolores; Lafont, Fernando; Ruiz Arrebola, José Rafael (1 September 2024). "New archaeochemical insights into Roman wine from Baetica". Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports. 57: 104636. Bibcode:2024JArSR..57j4636C. doi:10.1016/j.jasrep.2024.104636. ISSN 2352-409X.
- ^ J. R. Edwards (4 December 2013). A History of Financial Accounting (RLE Accounting). Routledge. p. 46. ISBN 978-1-134-67881-5.
- ^ Sleeswyk AW, Sivin N (1983). "Dragons and toads: the Chinese seismoscope of BC. 132". Chinese Science. 6: 1–19.
- ^ Needham, Joseph (1959). Science and Civilization in China, Volume 3: Mathematics and the Sciences of the Heavens and the Earth. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 626–635. Bibcode:1959scc3.book.....N.
- ^ Baber (1996), page 57
- ^ Ritti, Tullia; Grewe, Klaus; Kessener, Paul (2007): "A Relief of a Water-powered Stone Saw Mill on a Sarcophagus at Hierapolis and its Implications", Journal of Roman Archaeology, Vol. 20, pp. 138–163 (140, 161)
- ^ Grewe, Klaus (2009): "Die Reliefdarstellung einer antiken Steinsägemaschine aus Hierapolis in Phrygien und ihre Bedeutung für die Technikgeschichte. Internationale Konferenz 13.−16. Juni 2007 in Istanbul" Archived 11 May 2011 at the Wayback Machine, in: Bachmann, Martin (ed.): Bautechnik im antiken und vorantiken Kleinasien, Byzas, Vol. 9, Ege Yayınları/Zero Prod. Ltd., Istanbul, ISBN 978-975-8072-23-1, pp. 429–454 (429)
- ^ Grewe, Klaus (2010): "La máquina romana de serrar piedras. La representación en bajorrelieve de una sierra de piedras de la antigüedad, en Hierápolis de Frigia y su relevancia para la historia técnica (translation by Miguel Ordóñez)", in: Las técnicas y las construcciones de la Ingeniería Romana, V Congreso de las Obras Públicas Romanas, pp. 381–401
- ^ Shaffer, Lynda N., "Southernization", Agricultural and Pastoral Societies in Ancient and Classical History edited by Michael Adas, pp. 311, Temple University Press, ISBN 1-56639-832-0.
- ^ Hsü, Immanuel C. Y. (1970). The Rise of Modern China. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 830. ISBN 0-19-501240-2.
- ^ Wilson, Andrew (1995): "Water-Power in North Africa and the Development of the Horizontal Water-Wheel", Journal of Roman Archaeology, Vol. 8, pp. 499–510 (507f.)
- ^ Wikander, Örjan (2000): "The Water-Mill" in: Wikander, Örjan (ed.): Handbook of Ancient Water Technology, Technology and Change in History, Vol. 2, Brill, Leiden, ISBN 90-04-11123-9, pp. 371–400 (377)
- ^ Donners, K.; Waelkens, M.; Deckers, J. (2002): "Water Mills in the Area of Sagalassos: A Disappearing Ancient Technology", Anatolian Studies, Vol. 52, pp. 1–17 (13)
- ^ Leibs, Andrew (2004). Sports and Games of the Renaissance. Westport, CT: Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-313-32772-8.
- ^ Estes, Rebecca; Robinson, Dindy (1996). World Cultures Through Art Activities. Englewood, CO: Teachers Ideas Press. ISBN 978-1-56308-271-9.
- ^ "Hindi and the origins of chess". chessbase.com. 5 March 2014. Archived from the original on 8 March 2014.
- ^ Helaine Selin, ed. (2008). Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures. Springer. p. 197. ISBN 978-1-4020-4559-2.
- ^ The American Journal of Science. 1919. Retrieved 30 June 2009.
- ^ Needham, Joseph. (1986d). Science and Civilization in China: Volume 4, Physics and Physical Technology, Part 3, Civil Engineering and Nautics. Taipei: Caves Books Ltd. ISBN 0-521-07060-0, 187–189.
- ^ Peters, Tom F. (1987). Transitions in Engineering: Guillaume Henri Dufour and the Early 19th Century Cable Suspension Bridges. Birkhauser. ISBN 3-7643-1929-1.
- ^ "suspension bridge" in Encyclopædia Britannica (2008). 2008 Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.
- ^ Hucker (1975), 206.
- ^ Ronan (1994), 41.
- ^ "ASTM International – Standards Worldwide". www.astm.org. Archived from the original on 6 July 2017. Retrieved 26 March 2018.
- ^ De Rebus Bellicis (anon.), chapter XVII, text edited by Robert Ireland, in: BAR International Series 63, part 2, p. 34
- ^ On the Corrosion Resistance of the Delhi Iron Pillar, R. Balasubramaniam, Corrosion Science, Volume 42 (2000) pp. 2103–2129. Corrosion Science is a publication specialized in corrosion science and engineering.
- ^ Yoshio Waseda; Shigeru Suzuki (2006). Characterization of corrosion products on steel surfaces. Springer. p. vii. ISBN 978-3-540-35177-1.
- ^ Needham, Volume 4, Part 2, 28.
- ^ Needham, Volume 4, Part 2, 322.
- ^ Galliazzo, Vittorio (1995): "I ponti romani", Vol. 1, Edizioni Canova, Treviso, ISBN 88-85066-66-6, p. 92
- ^ Warren, John (1991): "Creswell's Use of the Theory of Dating by the Acuteness of the Pointed Arches in Early Muslim Architecture", Muqarnas, Vol. 8, pp. 59–65 (61–63)
- ^ Schafer (1963), pages 160-161
- ^ Bedini (1994), pages 69-80
- ^ Smith, C. Wayne; Cothren, J. Tom (1999). Cotton: Origin, History, Technology, and Production. Vol. 4. John Wiley & Sons. pp. viii. ISBN 978-0471180456.
The first improvement in spinning technology was the spinning wheel, which was invented in India between 500 and 1000 A.D.
- ^ Heinle, Erwin; Schlaich, Jörg (1996): "Kuppeln aller Zeiten, aller Kulturen", Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt, Stuttgart, ISBN 3-421-03062-6, pp. 30–32
- ^ Needham, Volume 5, Part 1, 123.
- ^ Hunter (1978), 207.
- ^ Kumar, Jayanth V. (2011). "Oral hygiene aids". Textbook of preventive and community dentistry (2nd ed.). Elsevier. pp. 412–413. ISBN 978-81-312-2530-1.
- ^ Pryor & Jeffreys 2006, pp. 607–609
- ^ Theophanes & Turtledove 1982, p. 52
- ^ Roland 1992, p. 657; Pryor & Jeffreys 2006, p. 608
- ^ Ebrey, Walthall, and Palais (2006), 156.
- ^ Bowman (2000), 105.
- ^ Gernet (1962), 80.
- ^ Wood (1999), 49.
- ^ Jack Kelly Gunpowder: Alchemy, Bombards, and Pyrotechnics: The History of the Explosive that Changed the World, Perseus Books Group: 2005, ISBN 0465037224, 9780465037223: pp. 2-5
- ^ Needham, Volume 5, Part 7, 8–9, 80–82.
- ^ Needham (1987), Volume 5, Part 7, 70–73, 120–124.
- ^ Gernet (1996), 311.
- ^ Day & McNeil (1996), 785.
- ^ Needham 1954, pp. 131–132.
- ^ Wilkinson, W.H. (1895). "Chinese Origin of Playing Cards". American Anthropologist. VIII (1): 61–78. doi:10.1525/aa.1895.8.1.02a00070.
- ^ Lo, A. (2009). "The game of leaves: An inquiry into the origin of Chinese playing cards". Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies. 63 (3): 389–406. doi:10.1017/S0041977X00008466. S2CID 159872810.
- ^ Needham 2004, p. 328 "it is also now rather well-established that dominoes and playing-cards were originally Chinese developments from dice."
- ^ Needham 2004, p. 332 "Numbered dice, anciently widespread, were on a related line of development which gave rise to dominoes and playing-cards (+9th-century China)."
- ^ Needham (1986), Volume 5, Part 7, 224–225, 232–233, 241–244.
- ^ Helaine Selin (1 January 1997). Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures. Springer. p. 389. ISBN 978-0-7923-4066-9. Retrieved 30 July 2013.
- ^ Crosby, Alfred W. (2002), Throwing Fire: Projectile Technology Through History, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-79158-8
- ^ Gernet (1962), 186.
- ^ Bosworth, C. E. (1981). "A Mediaeval Islamic Prototype of the Fountain Pen?". Journal of Semitic Studies. 26 (1): 229–234. doi:10.1093/jss/26.2.229.
...not more than a few days passed before the craftsman, to whom the construction of this contrivance had been described, brought in the pen, fashioned from gold. He then filled it with ink and wrote with it, and it really did write. The pen released a little more ink than was necessary. Hence al-Mu'izz ordered that it should be adjusted slightly, and he did this. He brought forward the pen and behold, it turned out to be a pen which can be turned upside down in the hand and tipped from side to side, and no trace of ink appears from it. When a secretary takes up the pen and writes with it, he is able to write in the most elegant script that could possibly be desired; then, when he lifts the pen off the sheet of writing material, it holds in the ink. I observed that it was a wonderful piece of work, the like of which I had never imagined I would ever see.
- ^ Needham, Volume 4, Part 2, 111.
- ^ Encyclopædia Britannica (2008). "calico".
- ^ Needham, Volume 5, Part 1, 201–202.
- ^ Gernet (1996), 335.
- ^ Bowman (2000), 599.
- ^ Day & McNeil (1996), 70.
- ^ "A Brief History of Rocketry". Solarviews.com. Retrieved 14 June 2012.
- ^ Whitrow, G. J. (26 March 1989). Time in History: Views of Time from Prehistory to the Present Day. Oxford University Press. p. 104. ISBN 9780192852113. Retrieved 26 March 2018 – via Internet Archive.
- ^ Lynn White: "The Act of Invention: Causes, Contexts, Continuities and Consequences", Technology and Culture, Vol. 3, No. 4 (Autumn, 1962), pp. 486–500 (497f. & 500)
- ^ Peter Connolly (1 November 1998). The Hutchinson Dictionary of Ancient and Medieval Warfare. Taylor & Francis. pp. 356. ISBN 978-1-57958-116-9.
- ^ Needham (1986), Volume 5, Part 7, 170–174.
- ^ Needham (1986), Volume 5, Part 7, 171.
- ^ Needham (1986), Volume 5, Part 7, 293–294.
- ^ "Prehistoric Inuit Snow-Goggles, circa 1200". Canadian Museum of Civilization. 3 October 1997. Archived from the original on 6 July 2011. Retrieved 25 January 2009.
Acton, Johnny; Adams, Tania; Packer, Matt (2006). Swinnerton, Jo (ed.). Origin of Everyday Things. Sterling Publishing Company, Inc. p. 254. ISBN 1-4027-4302-5. - ^ Inuit hero Nanook from the silent documentary film Nanook of the North (1922) wearing whale bone snow-goggles Archived March 4, 2016, at the Wayback Machine Retrieved December 5, 2014
- ^ Ament, Phil (4 December 2006). "Sunglasses History – The Invention of Sunglasses". The Great Idea Finder. Vaunt Design Group. Archived from the original on 3 July 2007. Retrieved 28 June 2007.
- ^ Vision, Website. "Torquay Museum". Torquay Museum. Retrieved 7 August 2021.
- ^ Habib, Irfan (2011). Economic History of Medieval India, 1200-1500. Pearson Education. p. 54. ISBN 978-81-317-2791-1.
- ^ Needham (1986), Volume 5, Part 7, 175–176, 192.
- ^ Vincent Ilardi, Renaissance Vision from Spectacles to Telescopes (Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: American Philosophical Society, 2007), page 5.
- ^ Gwei-Djen, Lu; Joseph Needham; Phan Chi-Hsing (July 1988). "The Oldest Representation of a Bombard". Technology and Culture. 29 (3). Johns Hopkins University Press: 594–605. doi:10.2307/3105275. JSTOR 3105275. S2CID 112733319.
- ^ Gordon, xiii
- ^ Needham (1986), Volume 5, Part 7, 203–205.
- ^ "Proving their mettle in metal craft". The Times of India. 2 January 2012. Archived from the original on 8 May 2013. Retrieved 2 January 2012.
- ^ See People of the Millennium for an overview of the wide acclaim. In 1999, the A&E Network ranked Gutenberg no. 1 on their "People of the Millennium" countdown. In 1997, Time–Life magazine picked Gutenberg's invention as the most important of the second millennium Archived 10 March 2010 at the Wayback Machine; the same did four prominent US journalists in their 1998 resume 1,000 Years, 1,000 People: Ranking The Men and Women Who Shaped The Millennium. The Johann Gutenberg entry of the Catholic Encyclopedia describes his invention as having made a practically unparalleled cultural impact in the Christian era.
- ^ a b White, Lynn Jr. (1966). Medieval Technology and Social Change. New York: Oxford Univ. Press. ISBN 0-19-500266-0., p.126-127
- ^ White, Lynn (1962): "Medieval Technology and Social Change", At the Clarendon Press, Oxford, p. 112
- ^ Meggs, Philip B. A History of Graphic Design. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 1998. (pp 58–69) ISBN 0-471-29198-6
- ^ Penny Cyclopaedia of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge. Vol. 1. C. Knight. 1833. pp. 373–374. Retrieved 5 January 2016.
- ^ "harquebus weapon". Britannica.com. Retrieved 5 January 2016.
- ^ Stimson, Alan (1985): "The Mariner's Astrolabe. A Survey of 48 Surviving Examples", UC Biblioteca Geral, Coimbra, p. 576
- ^ Noble, Allen G. (2019). India: Cultural Patterns And Processes. Routledge. p. 1. ISBN 9780429724633. JSTOR 44148394.
- ^ Razpush, Shahnaz (15 December 2000). "ḠALYĀN". Encyclopedia Iranica. pp. 261–265. Retrieved 19 December 2012.
- ^ Sivaramakrishnan, V. M. (2001). Tobacco and Areca Nut. Hyderabad: Orient Blackswan. pp. 4–5. ISBN 81-250-2013-6.
- ^ Sarton, George (1946): "Floating Docks in the Sixteenth Century", Isis, Vol. 36, No. 3/4, pp. 153–154 (153f.)
- ^ "William Lee English inventor". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 13 June 2017.
- ^ a b World Association of Newspapers: "Newspapers: 400 Years Young!" Archived 10 March 2010 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ a b Weber, Johannes (2006): "Strassburg, 1605: The Origins of the Newspaper in Europe", German History, Vol. 24, No. 3, pp. 387–412 (396f.)
- ^ David Macaulay, The Way Things Work Now, Houghton Mifflin Harcourt – 2016, page 383
- ^ Michelle Selinger, Teaching Mathematics (1994), p. 142.
- ^ "The Galileo Project". Galileo.rice.edu. Retrieved 31 October 2012.
- ^ "A Brief History of the Calculator I Oxford Open Learning". www.ool.co.uk. Retrieved 12 April 2023.
- ^ "The Invention of the Barometer". Islandnet.com. Retrieved 4 February 2010.
- ^ da C. Andrade, E. N. (1 March 1959). "The history of the vacuum pump". Vacuum. 9 (1): 41–47. Bibcode:1959Vacuu...9...41D. doi:10.1016/0042-207X(59)90555-X. ISSN 0042-207X.
- ^ "The invention of the pendulum clock | THE SEIKO MUSEUM GINZA". THE SEIKO MUSEUM. Retrieved 12 April 2023.
- ^ Hall, A. Rupert (Alfred Rupert) (1996). Isaac Newton, adventurer in thought. Internet Archive. Cambridge; New York, NY : Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-56669-8.
- ^ Hindle, Brooke; Lubar, Steven (1988). "Engines of Change: The American Industrial Revolution, 1790-1860". Labour / Le Travail. 22: 378. doi:10.2307/25143112. ISSN 0700-3862. JSTOR 25143112.
- ^ Thurston, pp 25
- ^ "Savery and his Fire Engine", A Short History of the Steam Engine, Cambridge University Press, pp. 18–28, 17 February 2011, doi:10.1017/cbo9780511708169.003, ISBN 9781108012287, retrieved 11 April 2023
- ^ McNeil, Ian (1990). An Encyclopedia of the History of Technology. London: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-14792-1.
- ^ Lord, John (1903). Memoir of John Kay, of Bury: Inventory of the Fly-Shuttle. Rochdale: J. Clegg.
- ^ Pollak, Michael (24 April 2015). "The History of Roller Skates". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 11 April 2023.
- ^ Narasimha, Roddam (27 July 2011). "Rockets in Mysore and Britain, 1750–1850 A.D." (PDF). National Aeronautical Laboratory and Indian Institute of Science. Archived from the original on 27 July 2011.
- ^ Meggs, Philip B. A History of Graphic Design. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 1998. p 146 ISBN 0-471-29198-6
- ^ "The Arc Lamp". Archived from the original on 7 February 2011. Retrieved 29 April 2011.
- ^ Andreas Luch (2009). Molecular, clinical and environmental toxicology. Springer. p. 20. ISBN 978-3-7643-8335-0.
- ^ "Programming patterns: the story of the Jacquard loom". Science and Industry Museum. Retrieved 12 April 2023.
- ^ "Richard Trevithick's steam locomotive | Rhagor". Archived from the original on 15 April 2011. Retrieved 3 November 2009.
- ^ Izuo, M (2004). "Medical history: Seishu Hanaoka and his success in breast cancer surgery under general anesthesia two hundred years ago". Breast Cancer. 11 (4). Tokyo, Japan: 319–324. doi:10.1007/bf02968037. PMID 15604985. S2CID 43428862.
- ^ Applied Nutrition and Food Technology, Jesse D. Dagoon, 1989; p. 2.
- ^ "First wristwatch | Breguet". www.breguet.com. Retrieved 14 June 2021.
- ^ "1816-1882: Early Stethoscope". EMS Museum. Retrieved 11 April 2023.
- ^ R. Sier (1999)
- ^ Thomson, Ross (2009). Structures of Change in the Mechanical Age: Technological Invention in the United States 1790-1865. Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-9141-0.
- ^ Hounshell 1984, p. 35
- ^ Halacy, Daniel Stephen (1970). Charles Babbage, Father of the Computer. Crowell-Collier Press. ISBN 0-02-741370-5.
- ^ Flatnes, Oyvind. From Musket to Metallic Cartridge: A Practical History of Black Powder Firearms. Crowood Press, 2013, pp. 125–130. ISBN 978-1847975935
- ^ Sturgeon, W. (1825). "Improved Electro Magnetic Apparatus". Trans. Royal Society of Arts, Manufactures, & Commerce. 43: 37–52. cited in Miller, T.J.E (2001). Electronic Control of Switched Reluctance Machines. Newnes. p. 7. ISBN 978-0-7506-5073-1. Archived from the original on 3 December 2016.
- ^ Windelspecht, Michael. Groundbreaking Scientific Experiments, Inventions, and Discoveries of the 19th Century Archived 2017-01-11 at the Wayback Machine, xxii, Greenwood Publishing Group, 2003, ISBN 0-313-31969-3.
- ^ "John Walker's Friction Light". BBC. Retrieved 25 August 2011.
- ^ "What Is Braille?". The American Foundation for the Blind. Retrieved 11 April 2023.
- ^ Thomas, Robert M. (1 September 1969). "Early History of Butyl Rubber. Charles Goodyear Medal Address—1969". Rubber Chemistry and Technology. 42 (4): G90–G96. doi:10.5254/1.3539292. ISSN 1943-4804.
- ^ Daniel, Authors: Malcolm. "Daguerre (1787–1851) and the Invention of Photography | Essay | The Metropolitan Museum of Art | Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History". The Met’s Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. Retrieved 11 April 2023.
- ^ DCC, Blueprint (5 April 2013). "Blueprint data release - April 2013". doi:10.6019/blueprint_20130405 (inactive 12 July 2024).
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of July 2024 (link) - ^ Steven Roberts. "Distant Writing – Bain".
- ^ "Walter Hunt | Lemelson". lemelson.mit.edu. Retrieved 11 April 2023.
- ^ "Model of Jenning's patent water closet | Science Museum Group Collection". collection.sciencemuseumgroup.org.uk. Retrieved 12 March 2022.
- ^ Goodwin, Jason OTIS GIVING RISE TO THE MODERN CITY, Chicago, 2001: Ivan R. Dee, Publisher, pp. 5-21
- ^ "An Act to render valid a Patent heretofore granted to James Harrison for Manufacturing Ice" (PDF). Flinders University, Adelaide.
- ^ Deng, Yuliang. "CARBON FIBER ELECTRONIC INTERCONNECTS".
- ^ M. Cobb, Harold (2010). "Chapter 2: The Early Discoveries". The History of Stainless Steel (illustrated ed.). ASM International. p. 11. ISBN 978-1615030118. Retrieved 23 February 2017.
- ^ Charles R. Geisst (1 January 2009). Encyclopedia of American Business History. Infobase Publishing. p. 425. ISBN 978-1-4381-0987-9.
- ^ "The History of the Edison Cylinder Phonograph". Library of Congress.
- ^ Quick, D. (1970). "A History Of Closed Circuit Oxygen Underwater Breathing Apparatus". Royal Australian Navy, School of Underwater Medicine. RANSUM-1-70. Archived from the original on 9 May 2008. Retrieved 25 August 2011.
- ^ Friedel, Robert, and Paul Israel. 1986. Edison's electric light: biography of an invention. New Brunswick, New Jersey: Rutgers University Press. pages 115–117
- ^ Kenneth E. Hendrickson III, The Encyclopedia of the Industrial Revolution in World History, Volume 3, Rowman & Littlefield – 2014, page 564
- ^ Maury Klein, The Power Makers: Steam, Electricity, and the Men Who Invented Modern America, Bloomsbury Publishing USA – 2010, Chapter 9 – The Cowbird, The Plugger, and the Dreamer
- ^ David O. Whitten, Bessie Emrick Whitten, Handbook of American Business History: Manufacturing, Greenwood Publishing Group, 1990, pages 315-316
- ^ "Beginnings of submerged arc welding" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 March 2016.
- ^ "Bicycle Association leads birthday celebrations for JK Starley, creator of the Safety bicycle". bicycleassociation.org. Bicycle Association. Archived from the original on 4 January 2015. Retrieved 4 January 2015.
- ^ The Britannica Guide to Inventions That Changed the Modern World. Britannica Educational Publishing. p. 124. ISBN 978-1-61530-064-8.[permanent dead link]
- ^ DRP's patent No. 37435 Archived 4 February 2012 at the Wayback Machine (PDF, 561 kB, German)
- ^ Great Britain Patent No. 15630, 30 October 2008
- ^ "Today in History - August 31". Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. 20540 USA. Retrieved 11 April 2023.
- ^ Sneader W (2005). "Chapter 8: Systematic medicine". Drug discovery: a history. Chichester, England: John Wiley and Sons. pp. 74–87. ISBN 978-0-471-89980-8. Retrieved 13 September 2010.
- ^ Twede, Diana; Selke, Susan E. M. (15 August 2005). "Cartons, Crates and Corrugated Board: Handbook of Paper and Wood Packaging Technology". DESIGN HOUSE Incorporated – via Google Books.
- ^ "Patent 39916 Summary". Government of Canada. Archived from the original on 28 February 2022. Retrieved 28 February 2022.
- ^ Born in the USA: The Book of American Origins. Skyhorse Publishing Inc. 2009. p. 186.
William Halsted and rubber gloves.
- ^ "Rubber Gloves: "Born" - and Now Banished - At Johns Hopkins - 01/14/2008". www.hopkinsmedicine.org. Retrieved 3 July 2021.
- ^ Leyden, John G. (27 November 1990). "The Strange Story of Surgical Gloves". Washington Post. ISSN 0190-8286. Retrieved 3 July 2021.
- ^ Brown, Walter (12 December 2016). "The History of Disposable Gloves". AMMEX. Retrieved 3 July 2021.
- ^ "Ansell - Our history". www.ansell.com. Retrieved 3 July 2021.
- ^ expired, Jeffery G. Nile; Stanley J. Gromelski & Alan A. Brain et al., "Surgeon's glove having improved donning properties", issued 1995-04-17
- ^ Strasser BJ, Schlich T (July 2020). "A history of the medical mask and the rise of throwaway culture". Lancet. 396 (10243): 19–20. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(20)31207-1. PMC 7255306. PMID 32450110.
- ^ von Pechmann, H. (1898). "Ueber Diazomethan und Nitrosoacylamine". Berichte der Deutschen Chemischen Gesellschaft zu Berlin. 31 (3): 2640–2646. doi:10.1002/cber.18980310314.
page 643: Erwähnt sei noch, dass aus einer ätherischen Diazomethanlösung sich beim Stehen manchmal minimale Quantitäten eines weissen, flockigen, aus Chloroform krystallisirenden Körpers abscheiden; ... (It should be mentioned that from an ether solution of diazomethane, upon standing, sometimes small quantities of a white, flakey substance, which can be crystallized from chloroform, precipitate; ... )
- ^ Gantz, Carroll (21 September 2012). The Vacuum Cleaner: A History. McFarland. p. 49
- ^ a b Peter O. K. Krehl (24 Sep 2008) History of Shock Waves, Explosions and Impact: A Chronological and Biographical Reference, p.443, Springer Science & Business Media, ISBN 3540304215, ISBN 9783540304210, accessed 7 July 2019
- ^ Personnage Larousse, accessed 7 July 2019
- ^ Anthony Roux (2 July 2009) Simulation aux Grandes Echelles d'un statoréacteur, p.15, University of Toulouse, "...La propulsion par statoreacteur a été inventée par le francais René Lorin en 1907 et decrite pour la ´ premiere fois dans la revue ` l'aerophile ´ dans un article intitule "Propulseur par reaction directe"...", accessed 7 July 2019
- ^ Lorin, René (1877–1933), Digital Mechanism and Gear Library, first contact for: "1913 – Lorin" (Margaret Connor) obtained via search criteria (google): "discovery of scramjet Frank Whittle", accessed 7 July 2019
- ^ R. Lorin (15 May 1913) – de la turbine a gaz au propulseur a reaction, pp.229–230, L'Aérophile; BnF Gallica, accessed 7 July 2019
- ^ Michael G. Smith (1 December 2014) — Rockets and Revolution: A Cultural History of Early Spaceflight, 7th page of Chapter 3, University of Nebraska Press, ISBN 0803286546, ISBN 9780803286542, accessed 7 July 2019
- ^ "A non-rusting steel". The New York Times. 31 January 1915.
- ^ "TractorData.com - Three-Point Hitch". www.tractordata.com. Retrieved 28 February 2022.
- ^ "The "Televisor" Successful Test of New Apparatus", The Times (London), Thursday 28 January 1926, p. 9 column C.
- ^ "Who invented the television? How people reacted to John Logie Baird's creation 90 years ago". The Telegraph. 26 January 2016. Archived from the original on 26 January 2016.
- ^ "Who invented the mechanical television? (John Logie Baird)". Google. 26 January 2016.
- ^ Marrison, Warren (1948). "The Evolution of the Quartz Crystal Clock". Bell System Technical Journal. 27 (3). AT&T: 510–588. doi:10.1002/j.1538-7305.1948.tb01343.x. Archived from the original on 13 May 2007.
- ^ "History – Frank Whittle (1907–1996)". BBC. Retrieved 26 March 2010.
- ^ "Espacenet - Original document". worldwide.espacenet.com.
- ^ Everest, Herbert A., Jennings, Harry C. Sr., "Folding wheel chair", US Patent 2095411, 1937
- ^ "X-brace construction for collapsible invalids' wheel chairs".
- ^ "Wallace Hume Carothers". Science History Institute. June 2016. Retrieved 20 March 2018.
- ^ a b The Technology of Nuclear Weapons, Arms Control Association, accessed 9 January 2020
- ^ a b Plutonium 239 Archived 18 January 2020 at the Wayback Machine, EDP-Sciences (EDITIONS DE PHYSIQUE) (& the Institut National de Physique Nucléaire et Physique des Particules (IN2P3) accessed 9 January 2020
- ^ Plutonium, published by the Atomic Heritage Foundation & the National Museum of Nuclear Science & History (of the United States) 5 June 2014 – accessed 2020-1-9, re-accessed due to an error in application during 9, 10 January 2020
- ^ Magill, Joseph (2003). "Fission Products and Yields ϒ". Nuclides.net. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer. pp. 187–196. doi:10.1007/978-3-642-55764-4_8. ISBN 978-3-642-62817-7.
- ^ Segre, Emilio — Spontaneous Fission p.13 "From this we deduce a spontaneous fission decay constant of 2.1 x l03 fissions per gram per second". published Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, University of California, 22 November 1950 (this source represents a re-application of sourcing due to an error in application of sourcing to the inclusion " fission" (+) "decay" during the 1st inclusion made 2020-1-9)
- ^ "The Magnetron". histru.bournemouth.ac.uk. Retrieved 28 February 2022.
- ^ Bellis, Mary. "The History of Polyester". About.com. Retrieved 23 February 2017.[permanent dead link]
- ^ Bookchin, Debbie and Schumacher, Jim. The Virus and the Vaccine. MacMillan 2005
- ^ "Espacenet - Bibliographic data". worldwide.espacenet.com. Retrieved 28 February 2022.
- ^ a b Bowman (1995), pp. 9–15.
- ^ Libby, W.F. (1946). "Atmospheric helium three and radiocarbon from cosmic radiation". Physical Review. 69 (11–12): 671–672. Bibcode:1946PhRv...69..671L. doi:10.1103/PhysRev.69.671.2.
- ^ Anderson, E.C.; Libby, W.F.; Weinhouse, S.; Reid, A.F.; Kirshenbaum, A.D.; Grosse, A.V. (1947). "Radiocarbon from cosmic radiation". Science. 105 (2765): 576–577. Bibcode:1947Sci...105..576A. doi:10.1126/science.105.2735.576. PMID 17746224.
- ^ Arnold, J.R.; Libby, W.F. (1949). "Age determinations by radiocarbon content: checks with samples of known age". Science. 110 (2869): 678–680. Bibcode:1949Sci...110..678A. doi:10.1126/science.110.2869.678. JSTOR 1677049. PMID 15407879.
- ^ Aitken (1990), pp. 60–61.
- ^ King, George E (2012), Hydraulic fracturing 101 (PDF), Society of Petroleum Engineers, Paper 152596
- ^ Smil, pp. 97-98.
- ^ R.G. Sharma (26 February 2015) Superconductivity: Basics and Applications to Magnets, p.311 Springer Science+Business Media, ISBN 3319137131, ISBN 9783319137131, illustrated, Retrieved 27 June 2019
- ^ "The Float Process". pilkington.com. Plinkington. Archived from the original on 24 September 2015. Retrieved 23 February 2017.
- ^ "IBM 350 disk storage unit". IBM. 23 January 2003. Archived from the original on 30 June 2012. Retrieved 25 February 2017.
- ^ McCorduck 2004, pp. 123–125 , Crevier 1993, pp. 44–46 and Russell & Norvig 2021, p. 17
- ^ Kumar, Aran (2014). "Optical amplifier: A key element of high speed optical network". 2014 International Conference on Issues and Challenges in Intelligent Computing Techniques (ICICT). IEEE. pp. 450–452. doi:10.1109/ICICICT.2014.6781324. ISBN 978-1-4799-2900-9. S2CID 32667559.
- ^ "1960: Metal Oxide Semiconductor (MOS) Transistor Demonstrated | the Silicon Engine | Computer History Museum".
- ^ "Who Invented the Transistor?". 4 December 2013.
- ^ "13 Sextillion & Counting: The Long & Winding Road to the Most Frequently Manufactured Human Artifact in History". 2 April 2018.
- ^ John S, Quarterman; Josiah C, Hoskins (1986). "Notable computer networks". Communications of the ACM. 29 (10): 932–971. doi:10.1145/6617.6618. S2CID 25341056.
The first packet-switching network was implemented at the National Physical Laboratories in the United Kingdom. It was quickly followed by the ARPANET in 1969.
- ^ Haughney Dare-Bryan, Christine (22 June 2023). Computer Freaks (Podcast). Chapter Two: In the Air. Inc. Magazine. 35:55 minutes in.
Leonard Kleinrock: Donald Davies ... did make a single node packet switch before ARPA did
- ^ Abbate, Jane (2000). Inventing the Internet. MIT Press. pp. 37–8, 58–9. ISBN 978-0262261333.
The NPL group influenced a number of American computer scientists in favor of the new technique, and they adopted Davies's term "packet switching" to refer to this type of network. Roberts also adopted some specific aspects of the NPL design.
- ^ Roberts, Dr. Lawrence G. (November 1978). "The Evolution of Packet Switching" (PDF). IEEE Invited Paper. Archived from the original (PDF) on 31 December 2018. Retrieved 10 September 2017.
In nearly all respects, Davies' original proposal, developed in late 1965, was similar to the actual networks being built today.
- ^ "Computer Pioneers - Donald W. Davies". IEEE Computer Society. Retrieved 20 February 2020.
The design of the ARPA network (ArpaNet) was entirely changed to adopt this technique.
; "Donald Davies". www.internethalloffame.org. Retrieved 20 April 2022.the ARPANET received his network design enthusiastically and the NPL local network became the first two computer networks in the world using the technique.
- ^ "The real story of how the Internet became so vulnerable". Washington Post. Archived from the original on 30 May 2015. Retrieved 18 February 2020.
Historians credit seminal insights to Welsh scientist Donald W. Davies and American engineer Paul Baran
- ^ "1971: Microprocessor Integrates CPU Function onto a Single Chip | the Silicon Engine | Computer History Museum".
- ^ "Floppy Disks - CHM Revolution". www.computerhistory.org. Archived from the original on 3 January 2017. Retrieved 6 October 2017.
- ^ "The World's Technological Capacity to Store, Communicate, and Compute Information", Martin Hilbert and Priscila López (2011), Science, 332(6025), 60-65; free access to the article through here martinhilbert.net/WorldInfoCapacity.html
- ^ Nick Taylor. Laser: The Inventor, the Nobel Laureate, and the Thirty-Year Patent War. Simon & Schuster. 2000
- ^ Cerf, V.; Kahn, R. (1974). "A Protocol for Packet Network Intercommunication" (PDF). IEEE Transactions on Communications. 22 (5): 637–648. doi:10.1109/TCOM.1974.1092259. ISSN 1558-0857.
The authors wish to thank a number of colleagues for helpful comments during early discussions of international network protocols, especially R. Metcalfe, R. Scantlebury, D. Walden, and H. Zimmerman; D. Davies and L. Pouzin who constructively commented on the fragmentation and accounting issues; and S. Crocker who commented on the creation and destruction of associations.
- ^ "The internet's fifth man". The Economist. 30 November 2013. ISSN 0013-0613. Retrieved 22 April 2020.
In the early 1970s Mr Pouzin created an innovative data network that linked locations in France, Italy and Britain. Its simplicity and efficiency pointed the way to a network that could connect not just dozens of machines, but millions of them. It captured the imagination of Dr Cerf and Dr Kahn, who included aspects of its design in the protocols that now power the internet.
- ^ "IEEE Medal for Environmental and Safety Technologies Recipients". Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE). Archived from the original on 25 March 2019.
- ^ de Castella, Tom (28 April 2014). "The people who are still addicted to the Rubik's Cube". BBC News Magazine. BBC. Retrieved 28 April 2014.
- ^ Gilbert, Walter; Maxam, Allan (February 1977). "A new method for sequencing DNA". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 74 (2): 560–566. Bibcode:1977PNAS...74..560M. doi:10.1073/pnas.74.2.560. PMC 392330. PMID 265521.
- ^ "The VaMoRs Was the World's First Real-Deal Autonomous Car | Web2Carz". Web2Carz.com. 28 February 2017.
- ^ Tweney, Dylan. "Sept. 24, 1979: First Online Service for Consumers Debuts". Wired. ISSN 1059-1028. Retrieved 26 February 2022.
- ^ "BBC - A History of the World - Object : Prestel badge". BBC. Retrieved 26 February 2022.
- ^ 4667088, Kramer, Kane N. & Campbell, James S., "Portable data processing and storage system", issued 1987-05-19
- ^ EP 689208 "Method for block oriented addressing" – for block layouts see columns 1 and 2
- ^ "SatMagazine". www.satmagazine.com. Retrieved 26 February 2022.
- ^ "Shinshu Seiki/Suwa Seikosha HC-20". IPSJ Computer Museum. Retrieved 19 June 2019.
- ^ "Our Story". 3D Systems. 12 January 2017. Retrieved 12 July 2018.
- ^ Zagorski, Nick (13 June 2006). "Profile of Alec J. Jeffreys". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 103 (24): 8918–8920. Bibcode:2006PNAS..103.8918Z. doi:10.1073/pnas.0603953103. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 1482540. PMID 16754883.
- ^ "Eureka moment that led to the discovery of DNA fingerprinting". The Guardian. 24 May 2009. Archived from the original on 26 April 2021. Retrieved 11 April 2022.
- ^ "On the 20th Birthday of the MP3, An Interview With The "Father" of the MP3, Karlheinz Brandenburg". Internet History Podcast. Retrieved 26 February 2022.
- ^ "Tim Berners Lee – Time 100 People of the Century". Time Magazine. Archived from the original on 3 February 2011. Retrieved 17 May 2010.
He wove the World Wide Web and created a mass medium for the 21st century. The World Wide Web is Berners-Lee's alone. He designed it. He loosed it on the world. And he more than anyone else has fought to keep it open, nonproprietary and free.
- ^ Berners-Lee, Tim. "Pre-W3C Web and Internet Background". World Wide Web Consortium. Retrieved 21 April 2009.
- ^ "1991: Solid State Drive module demonstrated | The Storage Engine | Computer History Museum". www.computerhistory.org.
- ^ Markoff, John (3 March 1997). "Fiber-Optic Technology Draws Record Stock Value". The New York Times.
- ^ "Podcast". Cambridge Dictionary (Online ed.). Retrieved 21 April 2022.
- ^ "Definition of PODCAST". 21 November 2023.
- ^ "Podcast Definition & Meaning | Britannica Dictionary". britannica.com.
- ^ Inside the secret lab where Amazon is designing the future of reading Archived September 22, 2017, at the Wayback Machine The Verge, 2014
- ^ Narayanan, Arvind; Bonneau, Joseph; Felten, Edward; Miller, Andrew; Goldfeder, Steven (2016). Bitcoin and cryptocurrency technologies: a comprehensive introduction. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-17169-2.
- ^ Edwards, Lin; Phys.org. "IKAROS unfurls first ever solar sail in space". phys.org. Retrieved 30 December 2022.
- ^ Cho, Adrian (2010). "BREAKTHROUGH OF THE YEAR. The First Quantum Machine". Science. 330 (6011): 1604. Bibcode:2010Sci...330.1604C. doi:10.1126/science.330.6011.1604. PMID 21163978.
- ^ Cohen, Jon (2011). "Breakthrough of the Year: HIV Treatment as Prevention". Science. 334 (6063): 1628. Bibcode:2011Sci...334.1628C. doi:10.1126/science.334.6063.1628. PMID 22194547.
- ^ Couzin-Franken, Jenifer (20 December 2013). "Cancer Immunotherapy". Science. 342 (6165): 1432–1433. doi:10.1126/science.342.6165.1432. PMID 24357284. Archived from the original on 22 December 2013. Retrieved 22 December 2013.
- ^ Travis, John (18 December 2015). "Making the cut". Science Magazine. 350 (6267): 1456–1457. doi:10.1126/science.350.6267.1456. PMID 26680172.
- ^ "Transformers". Science. AAAS. Retrieved 28 November 2018.
- ^ "Choose your 2018 Breakthrough of the Year!". Science. AAAS. Retrieved 28 November 2018.
- ^ "Pfizer-BioNTech COVID-19 Vaccine | FDA". Food and Drug Administration. 14 January 2021. Archived from the original on 14 January 2021. Retrieved 11 July 2024.
References
[edit]- Bourbaki, Nicolas (1998). Elements of the History of Mathematics. Berlin, Heidelberg, and New York: Springer-Verlag. ISBN 3-540-64767-8.
- Bowman, John S. (2000). Columbia Chronologies of Asian History and Culture. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 0-231-11004-9.
- Buisseret, David. (1998). Envisioning the City: Six Studies in Urban Cartography. Chicago: University Of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-07993-7.
- Curtis, Robert I. (2008). "Food Processing and Preparation". In Oleson, John Peter (ed.). The Oxford Handbook of Engineering and Technology in the Classical World. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-518731-1.
- Day, Lance and Ian McNeil. (1996). Biographical Dictionary of the History of Technology. New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-06042-7.
- de Vos, Mariette (2011). "The Rural Landscape of Thugga: Farms, Presses, Mills, and Transport". In Bowman, Alan; Wilson, Andrew (eds.). The Roman Agricultural Economy: Organization, Investment, and Production. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-966572-3.
- Ebrey, Patricia Buckley (1999). The Cambridge Illustrated History of China. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-66991-X (paperback).
- Ebrey, Walthall, Palais, (2006). East Asia: A Cultural, Social, and Political History. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company.
- Elisseeff, Vadime. (2000). The Silk Roads: Highways of Culture and Commerce. New York: Berghahn Books. ISBN 1-57181-222-9.
- Hounshell, David A. (1984), From the American System to Mass Production, 1800–1932: The Development of Manufacturing Technology in the United States, Baltimore, Maryland: Johns Hopkins University Press, ISBN 978-0-8018-2975-8, LCCN 83016269, OCLC 1104810110
- Hucker, Charles O. (1975). China's Imperial Past: An Introduction to Chinese History and Culture. Stanford, Calif. : Stanford University. ISBN 0-8018-4595-5.
- Hunter, Dard (1978). Papermaking: The History and Technique of an Ancient Craft. Mineola: Dover Publications, Inc. ISBN 0-486-23619-6.
- Gernet, Jacques (1962). Daily Life in China on the Eve of the Mongol Invasion, 1250-1276. Translated by H.M. Wright. Stanford: Stanford University Press. ISBN 0-8047-0720-0.
- Gernet, Jacques. (1996). A History of Chinese Civilization. Translated by J.R. Foster and Charles Hartman. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-49781-7.
- Kreutz, Barbara M. (1973) "Mediterranean Contributions to the Medieval Mariner's Compass", Technology and Culture, 14 (3: July), p. 367–383
- Lo, Andrew. "The Game of Leaves: An Inquiry into the Origin of Chinese Playing Cards", Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London, Vol. 63, No. 3 (2000): 389–406.
- Loewe, Michael. (1968). Everyday Life in Early Imperial China during the Han Period 202 BC–AD 220. London: B.T. Batsford Ltd.; New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons.
- Maddin, Robert (1988), The Beginning of the Use of Metals and Alloys, The MIT Press, ISBN 9780262132329
- Needham, Joseph (1954), Science and Civilisation in China: Volume 1, Introductory Orientations, Cambridge University Press
- Needham, Joseph, Science and Civilization in China: Volume 4, Physics and Physical Technology, Part 2, Mechanical Engineering. Taipei: Caves Books Ltd.,1986 ISBN 0-521-07060-0
- Needham, Joseph (1962). Science and Civilization in China: Volume 4, Physics and Physical Technology; Part 1, Physics. Cambridge University Press., reprinted Taipei: Caves Books, Ltd. (1986)
- Needham, Joseph and Tsien Tsuen-Hsuin. (1985). Science and Civilization in China: Volume 5, Chemistry and Chemical Technology, Part 1, Paper and Printing. Cambridge University Press., reprinted Taipei: Caves Books, Ltd. (1986)
- Needham, Joseph. (1987). Science and Civilization in China: Volume 5, Chemistry and Chemical Technology, Part 7, Military Technology; the Gunpowder Epic. Cambridge University Press.
- Needham, Joseph (2004) [1962], Science and Civilisation in China: Volume 4, Physics and Physical Technology; Part 1, Physics, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-05802-3
- Pigott, Vincent C. (1999). The Archaeometallurgy of the Asian Old World. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology. ISBN 0-924171-34-0.
- Pryor, John H.; Jeffreys, Elizabeth M. (2006), The Age of the ΔΡΟΜΩΝ: The Byzantine Navy ca. 500–1204, Brill Academic Publishers, ISBN 978-9004151970
- Roland, Alex (1992), "Secrecy, Technology, and War: Greek Fire and the Defense of Byzantium", Technology and Culture, 33 (4): 655–679, doi:10.2307/3106585, JSTOR 3106585, S2CID 113017993
- Ronan, Colin A. (1994). The Shorter Science and Civilisation in China: Volume 4. Cambridge : Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-32995-7.
- Sivin, Nathan (1995). Science in Ancient China: Researches and Reflections. Brookfield, Vermont: VARIORUM, Ashgate Publishing.
- Stark, Miriam T. (2005). Archaeology of Asia. Malden, MA : Blackwell Pub. ISBN 1-4051-0213-6.
- Theophanes; Turtledove, Harry (Transl.) (1982), The chronicle of Theophanes: an English translation of anni mundi 6095–6305 (A.D. 602–813), University of Pennsylvania Press, ISBN 978-0812211283
- Wagner, Donald B. (1993). Iron and Steel in Ancient China: Second Impression, With Corrections. Leiden: E.J. Brill. ISBN 90-04-09632-9.
- Wagner, Donald B. (2001). The State and the Iron Industry in Han China. Copenhagen: Nordic Institute of Asian Studies Publishing. ISBN 87-87062-83-6.
- Wang, Zhongshu. (1982). Han Civilization. Translated by K.C. Chang and Collaborators. New Haven and London: Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-02723-0.
- Wood, Nigel. (1999). Chinese Glazes On The Coast: Their Origins, Chemistry, and Recreation. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 0-8122-3476-6.